THE    STONE    AGE    IN 
NORTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  223.  (S.  i-i.) 

Two  grooved  effigies  and  two  celts,  from  the  Ba 
hama  Islands,  West '  Indies.  Reproduced  in  natural 
colors.  B.  W.  Arnolds  collection,  Albany,  New  York. 


THE  STONE  AGE 
IN  NORTH  AMERICA 

AN    ARCHAEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA   OF   THE    IMPLEMENTS, 
ORNAMENTS,    WEAPONS,    UTENSILS,    ETC.,    OF    THE    PRE 
HISTORIC   TRIBES   OF   NORTH    AMERICA,   WITH    MORE 
THAN  THREE  HUNDRED  FULL-PAGE  PLATES  AND 
FOUR  HUNDRED  FIGURES  ILLUSTRATING  OVER 
FOUR    THOUSAND    DIFFERENT    OBJECTS 


BY 

WARREN  K.  MOOREHEAD,  A.M 

CURATOR    OF    THE    DEPARTMENT    OF    AMERICAN    ARCHAE 
OLOGY,     PHILLIPS     ACADEMY,     MEMBER     OF     THK 
BOARD    OF    INDIAN    COMMISSIONERS,     ETC. 


IN   TWO   VOLUMES 
VOL.    II 


BOSTON  AND  NEW  YORK 

HOUGHTON   MIFFLIN   COMPANY 

Cbe  Rtbeusifce  JJrroe  CambrtHgr 

1910 


(A 


COPYRIGHT,    IQIO,    BY    WARREN    K.    MOOREHEAD 
ALL    RIGHTS    RESERVED 

Published  December  iqio 


CONTENTS 

XXV.  GROUND  STONE i 

Effigies  in  stone  and  wood  —  bird-stones I 

Animal  and  human  effigies .     .  20 

XXVI.  GROUND  STONE 29 

Stone  pipes 29 

The  classification  of  pipes       .     .  32 

XXVII.  GROUND  STONE 95 

Mortars  and  pestles      ....  95 

XXVIII.  OBJECTS  OF  SHELL .117 

XXIX.  OBJECTS  OF  BONE .  134 

Mandan  bone  implements       ...                                                              •  149 

XXX.  OBJECTS  OF  COPPER •  161 

The  native  copper  implements  of  Wisconsin                                               .  161 

Fabrication I?2 

Distribution •  174 

Classes  and  functions 178 

Axes 180 

Chisels 184 

Spuds 186 

Gouges 188 

Adzes 189 

Spatulas 192 

Knives 196 

Arrow-  and  spear-points 198 

Harpoon-points .214 

Pikes  and  punches •  216 

Awls  and  drills 219 

Spikes -220 

Needles 221 

Fish-hooks  —  peculiar  implements 222 

Banner-stones  —  beads 224 

Bangles 

Finger-rings  —  ear-rings 226 

Ear-spools  or  ear-plugs  —  gorgets  and  pendants 227 

Crescents 228 

Other  ornaments  .               23° 


vi  CONTENTS 

XXXI.  TEXTILE  FABRICS 235 

XXXII.  POTTERY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 247 

XXXIII.  HEMATITE  OBJECTS i    .  295 

XXXIV.  MISCELLANEOUS  OBJECTS 308 

XXXV.  THE  STONE  AGE  IN  EASTERN  CANADA,  UTAH,  AND  DAKOTA    ....  330 

Eastern  Canada 330 

The  Plains  of  western  and  central  Canada 333 

The  stone  age  in  Utah 336 

Objects  made  of  wood 336 

Textiles;  feather  objects;  bone  objects 337 

Objects  made  from  teeth;  shell  objects;  stone  objects;  pottery  objects  338 

The  stone  age  in  Dakota 339 

Hide  and  bark 339 

Objects  made  from  deer  antlers;  bone  objects;  shell  objects      .     .     .  340 

Stone  objects 341 

Objects  of  copper;  of  pottery;  of  unbaked  clay 342 

XXXVI.  CONCLUSIONS 344 

The  population  in  prehistoric  times 344 

The  stone  age  in  historic  times 348 

The  antiquity  of  man  in  America 350 

Adaptation  to  conditions 354 

Art  in  ancient  times  and  modern  art 355 

XXXVII.  CONCLUSIONS 357 

The  ancient  culture-groups  .     .  357 

The  stone-age  point  of  view 363 

Field  study  needed 365 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 369 

INDFX 411 


THE  STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 


THE   STONE  AGE   IN 
NORTH  AMERICA 


CHAPTER   XXV 

GROUND     STONE 
EFFIGIES     IN     STONE    AND     WOOD  —  BIRD-STONES 

ABORIGINAL  man  traced  all  sorts  of  figures  on  the  rocks  and  oc 
casionally  on  the  surfaces  of  flat  ornaments  and  ceremonials.  Not 
only  did  he  make  pictures  on  shell  gorgets  and  on  birch  bark,  but  he 
also  carved  complete  figures. 

I  have  not  made  a  special  chapter  for  pictographs  and  picture  writ 
ings,  but  have  dismissed  them  from  this  \vork,  save  with  here  and 
there  a  reference.  However,  they  represent  stone-age  pictorial  art. 
Dr.  Fewkes,  Mr.  Gushing,  Dr.  Garrick  Mallory  and  others  have  given 
us  numerous  papers  on  picture  writings,  pictographs,  painted  and 
sculptured  symbols.  Garrick  Mallory's  report  on  the  sign  language 
among  the  American  Indians  was  published  in  the  Eleventh  Annual 
Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology  and  covers  four  hundred  pages. 
This  treats  extensively  of  picture  writings  and  pictographs.  He 
portrayed  the  attempts  of  stone-age  man  at  expressing  his  thoughts. 
He  had  not  arrived  at  a  written  language  save  in  Mexico  and  Cen 
tral  America.  In  North  America  he  was  in  the  advanced  stone  age. 
But  he  was  very  skillful  in  his  pictographs  and  in  his  carvings  of 
human,  animal,  bird,  reptile,  and  fish  figures.  It  has  occurred  to  me 
that  he  first  made  rude  scratches  on  flat  surfaces,  on  wigwam  sides, 
on  trees,  on  rocks  near  trails. 

It  is  significant  that  the  Plains  tribes  and  all  the  natives  who  did 
not  construct  mounds  or  earthworks,  natives  that  had  not  reached 
the  stage  of  barbarism  but  were  still  savages,  made  no  effigies  of 
consequence.  The  effigies  carved  in  catlinite,  and  observed  among 
tribes  west  of  the  Mississippi  during  the  historic  period,  seem  to  have 
been  inspired  by  a  knowledge  of  the  superior  arts  of  the  white 
people.  We  find  that  while  the  roving  tribes  of  the  Plains  painted 
various  battle  and  hunting  scenes  on  their  tents  and  shields,  yet 


THE   STONE   AGE    IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


GROUND   STONE 


FIG.  400.  (S.  1-1.)  Unfinished  bird-stone.     Collection  of  Emily 
Fletcher,  Westford,  Massachusetts. 

they  were  inferior  in  art  as  compared  with  the  Pueblo,  the  Cliff  - 
Dweller,  or  the  Mound-Building  peoples.  It  is  also  significant, 
and  I  shall  speak  of  it  at  greater  length  in  my  Conclusions,  that 
the  native  American  was  so  little  influenced  in  his  art  by  some 
life-forms.  I  have  never  seen  an  effigy  of  a  mountain,  a  tree,  a 
plant,  or  a  flower.  The  modern  Ojibwa  Indians  design  flowers  in 
their  bead-work.  The  ancient  Ojibwa  did  not.  The  native  Ameri 
can  did  not  seem  to  have  been  impressed  by  plant-life  or  inanimate 


FIG.  401.  (S.  2-3.)  Unfinished  bird-stone.    Phillips  Academy  collection. 


4          THE   STONE   AGE   IN    NORTH   AMERICA 

objects.  Occasionally,  he  scratched  a  trail  or  a  tipi  on  an  orna 
ment,  and  some  of  the  pictographs  in  various  portions  of  the 
United  States  show  wigwams,  trails,  etc.  But  while  there  are 
numerous  examples  of  carvings  in  stone,  shell,  and  bone  of  animals, 
birds,  fish,  and  reptile  life,  we  search  in  vain  for  carvings  of  the  other 
things  I  have  mentioned.  The  highest  art  is  found  where  the  larg 
est  villages,  or  the  most  numerous  mounds  or  cliff-houses,  were 
located.  In  small  mound  groups,  or  areas  where  the  population 
was  not  sedentary,  the  art  is  very  crude.  Throughout  the  areas 


FIG.  402.  (S.  i -i.)  Central  Ontario,  Canada.    Provin 
cial  Museum  collection. 

where  the  culture  is  highest,  notably  Alabama,  Georgia,  Wisconsin, 
Tennessee,  Arkansas,  Missouri,  Ohio,  and  Illinois,  we  find  these  large 
mound  groups  referred  to,  all  of  which  proves  that  the  people  lived 
long  enough  in  one  place  to  develop  an  art. 

This  art  we  see  in  the  carved  effigies.    To  study  them  in  detail 
requires  more  space  than  is  available  in  this  volume.  The  Nomen 
clature  Committee  placed  all  effigies  under  one  head-    " Resem 
blances  to  known  forms."   Under  that  general  head  I  have  placed: 
I.  The  bird-stone  in  its  various  forms. 

(A)  Plain  bird-stones. 

(B)  With  ears  or  eyes,  or  with  expanding  wings. 
II.  Effigies  in  stone  other  than  pipes. 

III.  Human  effigies  in  stone  and  wood,  including  idols. 

The  classification  made  is  rendered  difficult  because  there  are 
effigies  in  bone,  shell,  clay,  and  stone,  not  to  omit  copper.  Such 
effigies  as  were  drilled  and  used  as  pipes  are  described  under  the 
chapter  devoted  to  pipes.  The  bone  effigies  are  included  in  the 
chapter  devoted  to  shell  and  bone,  while  copper  is  separately  treated. 
Yet  there  remains,  after  treating  more  or  less  completely  of  these 


GROUND   STONE  5 

various  divisions,  a  large  class  of  stone  objects  which  are  not  pipes, 
or  tools,  or  dishes,  and  which  I  have  thought  best  to  include  by 
themselves.  The  largest  division  in  effigies  is  the  so-called  bird- 
or  saddle-stone  which  is  found  between  the  following  lines:  Daven 
port,  Iowa,  to  central  Minnesota,  east  to  New  Brunswick,  south  to 
the  Atlantic  Coast,  and  thence  south  down  the  coast  to  Washington, 
thence  west  to  Davenport.  Few  bird-stones  occur  south  of  Kentucky, 
west  of  Davenport,  or  north  of  St.  Paul.  The  other  effigies  are  of 
multitudinous  kinds  and  are  widely  scattered  throughout  the 
United  States. 

Figs.  399,  400,  401,  and  the  central  object  in  Fig.  269  are  all 


FIG.  403.  (S.  i-i  and  1-2.)  These  three  problematical  forms  are 
from  the  Provincial  Museum  collection,  Ontario,  Canada.  The  upper 
one  is  from  central  Ontario.  The  base  view  of  the  lower  specimen  is 
also  shown. 


6          THE   STONE   AGE    IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  404.  (S.  1-2.)   Andover  collection. 


GROUND  STONE 


8 


THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 


unfinished  bird-stones.    It  was  difficult  for  me  to  procure  these,  but 
after  some  years  of  correspondence  they  were  obtained. 

The  specimens  clearly  show  the  work  of  the  hand-hammer.    Fig. 
401  and  the  upper  right-hand  specimen  in  Fig.  399  have  been  pecked 


FIG.  406.     (S.  about  1-3.)     Collection  of  Leslie  W.  Hills,  Fort 
Wayne,  Indiana. 

into  shape  and  the  grinding-polishing  process  was  well  under  way 
when  the  specimen  was  set  aside,  or  lost. 

In  collecting  numbers  of  these  unfinished  bird-stones,  my  object 
was  to  prove  that  these  slender,  delicate  objects  did  not  indicate 
European  knowledge  or  influence,  but  were  wrought  after  much 
labor  from  ordinary  stone  by  prehistoric  man.  None  of  them  show 


GROUND   STONE 


the  marks  of  steel  cutting-tools.  Fig.  400  is  the  roughest  one  and 
yet  the  ears  or  eyes  stand  out  in  relief.  Fig.  399  is  interesting  in 
that  it  shows  three  on  which  the  result  of  pecking  and  battering  is 
in  evidence.  The  one  to  the  left,  lower  row,  has  been  pecked,  and 
ground,  and  was  in  process  of  being  polished  when  the  work  ceased. 


FIG.  407.    (S.  1-2.)    Collection  of  Leslie  W.  Hills, 
Fort  Wayne,  Indiana. 

Fig.  401,  Anclover  collection,  found  in  Ohio,  is  a  large  bird-stone 
about  five  inches  in  length.  The  marks  of  the  flint  cutting-tool  or 
of  the  hard  grained  rubbing-stone,  which  cut  the  softer  surface  of 
the  slate,  are  still  apparent.  Fig.  404  presents  various  bird-stones, 
both  rare  and  common  forms,  with  and  without  ears.  These  are 
found  long  and  slender,  short  and  thick,  almost  as  low  as  the  bar- 


io        THE  STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

amulet,  and  also  so  high  that  they  merge  into  other  effigies.  Six 
bird-stones  from  the  collection  of  Mr.  Leslie  W.  Hills  of  Fort  Wayne, 
Indiana,  are  shown  in  Fig.  407. 

The  bird -stones  with  projection  on  either  side,  which  by  some  are 
called  ears,  and  by  others  eyes,  are  quite  frequently  found  in  the 
eastern  United  States,  and  Canada.  An  unusual  one  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  402,  this  having  one  button-shaped  knob  on  the  top  of  the 
head.  Figs.  406  and  409  from  the  collection  of  Mr.  Hills  illustrate 


!  • ' 


FIG.  408.  (S.  3-5.)  "This  specimen  is  from  western  New  York.  It  is  made  in  the  form  of 
a  bird  which  from  the  number  of  similar  specimens  have  given  the  name  to  this  class.  The 
eyes  are  represented  by  great  protuberances,  which  must  have  greatly  increased  the  diffi 
culty  of  manufacture.  It  is  made  from  a  boulder  or  large  piece,  and  while  the  material  is 
hard,  it  is  not  rough  but  rather  fragile.  It  could  not  be  chipped  like  flint  nor  whittled  like 
soapstone,  but  must  have  been  hammered  or  pecked  into  shape  and  afterwards  ground 
to  its  present  form,  then  polished  until  it  is  as  smooth  as  glass.  A  consideration  of  the  condi 
tions  demonstrates  the  difficulty  of  making  this  object  and  the  dexterity  and  the  experi 
enced  working  required."1  Material:  diorite  with  feldspar  crystals.  Smithsonian  collec 
tion.  Otis  M.  Bigelow's  collection,  Baldwinsville. 

bird-stones  about  one  third  size,  from  various  portions  of  Indiana, 
Ohio,  and  Canada;  an  unfinished  one  in  Fig.  409  (number  on  its 
side  561)  is  interesting  in  that  the  bill  or  nose  is  unusually  long,  the 
head  high,  and  the  body  quite  short.  One  beautiful  specimen  owned 
by  Mr.  George  Little  of  Xenia,  Ohio,  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  410,  and 
the  specimen  is  turned  in  Fig.  411  so  that  the  perforations  are  visible. 
The  neck  of  this  is  unusually  long.  It  will  be  observed  that  all  of 
these  bird-stones  have  flat  bases;  none  of  the  bases  are  round. 

In  Figs.  404  to  411  are  presented  bird-stones,  Class  I,  divisions 
A  and  B.    Naturally,  there  are  more  of  plain  bird-stones  (A)  than 

1  Smithsonian  Report  for  1896,  p.  451,  Dr.  Thomas  Wilson. 


GROUND   STONE  n 

those  with  large  projecting  ears,  or  elaborate  heads.  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  width  of  the  tail  varies,  being  long  and  narrow  in 
some,  short  and  slightly  flaring  in  others,  and  in  still  others  broad, 
or  fan-shaped.  Sometimes  the  eye  is  very  small,  as  in  the  lower  left- 
hand  specimen,  Fig.  405.  Or  it  may  be  sunken,  several  of  which 
are  shown  in  Fig.  409.  But  usually  it  is  worked  in  high  relief. 

There  are  presented,  all  told,  in  this  chapter,  sixty  bird-stones. 
It  would  be  possible  for  me  to  present  ten  times  this  number. 
There  are  included  in  the  series  numbers  of  effigy-like  objects  that 
might  not  be  classed  by  other  observers  as  bird-stones.  For  in 
stance,  the  central  specimen,  top  row,  of  Fig.  405. 

The  bird-stones  are  very  interesting  and  unique  objects  and  the 
range  in  them  is  considerable.  Sometimes  they  are  almost  square, 
as  is  seen  in  the  central  specimen,  lower  row,  Fig.  405.  Again,  the 
head  is  a  prominent  feature,  as  is  observed  in  the  lower  one  in  Fig. 
409,  and  the  body  is  of  secondary  consideration.  A  group  of  these 
stones  from  the  Andover  collection  is  shown  in  Fig.  404.  The  very 
small  bird-stone  in  the  upper  row  to  the  left  is  half  size  of  the  original, 
as  are  the  others.  This  is  the  smallest  bird-stone,  the  genuineness 
of  which  is  beyond  question,  brought  to  my  attention.  Just  below 
it  is  a  peculiarly  straight  effigy  from  Tennessee,  which  is  almost 
bar-amulet  in  shape,  and  marks  the  merging  of  the  bird-stone  into 
the  bar-amulet.  Fig.  408  is  an  expanded-wing  type  of  unusual 
beauty.  Fig.  405,  from  the  collection  of  W.  A.  Holmes,  Chicago, 
shows  typical  bird-stones,  with  an  unusual  one,  almost  like  a  frog, 
and  shown  in  the  centre  at  the  top.  Next  to  it  to  the  left  is  a  short 
stone,  hardly  bird-like  in  character,  of  which  a  few  have  been 
found  in  the  United  States.  Fig.  403,  from  the  collection  in  the  Pro 
vincial  Museum,  Toronto,  Ontario,  Canada,  presents  at  the  top 
a  stone  as  much  bar-amulet  as  bird  in  character,  and  also  a  stone 
at  the  bottom  in  the  centre  of  which  is  worked  a  projection  or  knob. 

Fig.  412,  from  the  Reverend  William  Beauchamp's  collection,  is 
somewhat  different  from  ordinary  bird-stones,  although  it  is  in 
cluded  under  that  class.  In  1899  I  issued  a  bulletin,  "The  Bird- 
Stone  Ceremonial,"  which  is  now  out  of  print.  It  illustrated  fifty- 
three  bird-stones.  Since  that  time  Mr.  Charles  E.  Brown  has 
published  a  study  of  bird-stones.1  This  is  an  excellent  review. 

Dr.  Thomas  Wilson  once  made  a  statement 2  concerning  bird- 
stones,  and  I  quote  one  of  his  paragraphs:  "The  United  States 

1  Wisconsin  Archeologist,  no.  I,  vol.  8,  1908.       2  Smithsonian  Report  for  1896,  p.  451. 


12        THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  409.  (S.  about  1-3.)  Collection  of  Mr.  Leslie  W.  Hills,  Fort  Wayne,  Indiana. 

National  Museum  possesses  many  of  these  specimens.  While  they 
bear  a  greater  resemblance  to  birds  than  anything  else,  yet  scarcely 
any  two  of  them  are  alike  and  they  change  in  form  through  the 
whole  gamut  until  it  is  difficult  to  determine  whether  it  is  a  bird, 
a  lizard,  or  a  turtle,  and  finally  the  series  ends  in  a  straight  bar 
without  pretense  of  presenting  any  animal." 

The  range  of  material  is  from  Huronian  slate  or  shale  to  red  sand 
stone,  granite,  and  porphyry.  Usually  the  stone  from  which  they 
are  made  is  banded  or  contains  spots  of  color.  They  are  either  red, 
gray,  or  bro\vn,  with  variations.  Sometimes  feldspathic  granite, 
diorite,  and  porphyritic-feldspar  are  made  use  of.  Dr.  William 


GROUND  STONE 


14        THE   STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

Beauchamp  gives  a  very  good  description  of  some  fifteen  bird- 
stones.1  I  have  reproduced  none  of  the  illustrations  he  gives,  but  as 
his  text  is  timely,  I  quote  at  length  from  his  paper:  — 

"The  theories  about  their  use  seem  fanciful,  as  some  certainly 
are.  Two  writers  assert  that  they  were  worn  by  married  or  pregnant 
women  only,  and  many  have  accepted  this  statement.  Others  think 
they  were  worn  by  conjurors,  or  fixed  on  the  prows  of  canoes.  It  is 
enough  to  say  that  some  of  the  perforations  are  not  adapted  to  any 
of  these  uses.  It  seems  better  to  class  them  with  the  war  and  prey 
or  hunting  gods  of  the  Zunis,  some  of  which  they  resemble.  In  that 
case  the  holes,  of  whatever  kind,  would  have  given  a  firm  hold  on 
the  thongs  which  bound  the  arrows  to  the  amulet,  a  matter  of  im 
portance  in  an  irregular  figure. 

"These  perforations  form  the  most  important  feature.  The 
amulet  may  be  but  a  simple  bar,  but  to  each  end  of  the  base  is 
a  sloping  hole,  bored  from  the  end  and  base  and  meeting.  To  this 
necessary  feature  may  be  added  a  simple  head  or  tail,  and  there  may 
also  be  projecting  ears.  None  of  these  are  essential.  They  are  but 
appropriate  or  tasteful  accessories. 

"Two  notable  collections  contain  a  large  number  of  amulets. 
In  the  Canadian  collection  at  Toronto  there  are  about  fifty  bird- 
amulets." 

Dr.  Beauchamp  mentions  Mr.  Douglass's  seventy  specimens  in 
the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History  collection,  and  also  re 
fers  to  the  rarity  of  bar-amulets  in  Western  New  York:  — 

"They  were  variable  in  material  as  well  as  form,  although  most 
commonly  made  of  striped  slate.  Perhaps  full  half  have  projecting 
ears,  when  of  the  bird-form.  In  the  wider  forms,  usually  of  harder 
materials,  there  are  often  cross-bars  on  the  under  side,  in  which  the 
perforations  are  made.  Occasionally  these  are  not  entirely  enclosed, 
yet  are  without  signs  of  breakage.  This  seems  to  prove  that  these 
were  not  intended  as  means  of  attaching  them  to  any  larger  object, 
on  which  they  would  rest,  but  rather  for  fastening  articles  upon 
them,  as  in  the  Zuni  amulets  already  mentioned,  and  which  were 
illustrated  by  Mr.  Frank  H.  Cushing,  in  the  Second  Report  of  the 
Bureau  of  Ethnology.  On  comparison  a  general  resemblance  to 
these  will  be  seen,  and  in  a  few  cases  it  is  quite  striking.  That  they 
were  used  in  this  way,  rather  than  in  those  suggested  by  others, 

1  Polished  Stone  Articles  used  by  the  New  York  Aborigines,  p.  56.    Albany,  1897. 


GROUND   STONE 


FIG.  411.  (S.  i-i.)  Side  view  of  Fig.  410. 

is  a  reasonable  conclusion  which  gains  strength  with  fuller  study. 
As  a  class  they  belong  to  the  St.  Lawrence  basin." 

Mr.  Gerard  Fowke  and  Professor  David  Boyle  should  be  quoted 
upon  this  subject.    Mr.  Fowke  says:1 

1  Stone  Art,  Bureau  of  Ethnology  Report  for  1891-92,  p.  125. 


16        THE   STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  412.    (S.  i-i.)    Rev.  William  Beauchamp's 
collection.   From  Michigan. 

"  Stone  relics  of  bird-form  are  quite  common  north  of  the  Ohio 
River,  but  are  exceedingly  rare  south  of  that  stream.  [He  illustrates 
the  same  specimen  figured  by  Dr.  Wilson.] 

''According  to  Gilman,1  the  bird-shape  stones  were  worn  on  the 
head  by  the  Indian  women,  but  only  after  marriage.  Abbott  quotes 
Colonel  Whittlesey  to  the  effect  that  they  were  worn  by  Indian 
women  to  denote  pregnancy,  and  from  William  Penn  that  when  the 
squaws  were  ready  to  marry  they  wore  something  on  their  heads 
to  indicate  the  fact. 

1  Gilman,  G.,  in  Smithsonian  Report  for  1873,  p.  371. 


GROUND  STONE 


FIG.  413  (S.  1-4.)  Peabody  Museum,  Cambridge. 

"Jones1  quotes  from  De  Bry  that  the  conjurors  among  the  Vir 
ginia  Indians  wore  a  small  black  bird  above  one  of  their  ears  as 
a  badge  of  office." 

Professor  Boyle  2  says:  "  Although  for  convenience  known  as 
bird-amulets  —  most  of  them  being  apparently  highly  conven 
tionalized  bird-forms  —  now  and  again  one  sees  specimens  that  are 
not  suggestive  of  birds,  whatever  else  they  may  have  been  intended 
to  symbolize.  In  some  instances  there  has  not  been  any  attempt  to 
imitate  eyes  even  by  means  of  a  depression,  but  in  the  majority  of 
cases  the  eyes  are  enormously  exaggerated,  and  stand  out  like  but 
tons  on  a  short  stalk,  fully  half  an  inch  beyond  the  side  of  the 
head.  In  every  finished  specimen  the  hole  is  bored  diagonally 
through  the  middle  of  each  end  of  the  base,  upwards  and  downwards. 
If  merely  for  suspension  when  being  carried,  one  hole  would  be 
sufficient,  but  the  probability  is  that  these  were  intended  for  fasten 
ing  the  'amulets'  to  some  other  object,  but  what,  or  for  what  pur 
pose,  is  not  known. 

"It  has  been  suggested  that  these  articles  .  .  .  were  employed 
in  playing  a  game;  that  they  are  totems  of  tribes  or  clans;  and  that 
they  were  talismans  in  some  way  connected  with  the  hunt  for  water 
fowl.  They  are,  at  all  events,  among  the  most  curious  and  highly 
finished  specimens  of  Indian  handicraft  in  stone  found  in  this  part 
of  America,  and  the  collection  of  them  in  the  Provincial  ArchcTo- 
logical  Museum  is  said  to  be  the  best  that  has  been  made." 

1  Antiquities  of  the  Southern  Indians,  p.  30. 

2  Notes  on  Primitive  Man  in  Ontario,  by  David  Boyle.    Toronto,  1895,  p.  67. 


18 


THE  STOXE  AGE   IX   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  414.  (S.  3-8.)  Effigy  of  a  whale.  Andover  collection.  This  stone  was 
found  near  Fall  River,  Massachusetts.  It  appears  to  be  an  effigy  of  a  whale. 
Numbers  of  rude  effigies,  more  or  less  whale-like  in  character,  are  found  along 
the  Atlantic  seaboard  in  Connecticut  and  Massachusetts.  Doubtless  the 
whale  would  excite  wonder  in  the  minds  of  aborigines  —  hence  the  effigies. 


FIG.  415.  (S.  1-2.)  Bear  effigy.    Found  near  the  corner  of  Essex  and 
Boston  Streets,  Salem,  Massachusetts,  in  1830. 


GROUND  STONE 


c 
o 

I 

a 


o 
o. 

8 

O 


20         THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


Professor  Boyle  speaks  of  the  bar-amulet  after  treating  of  bird- 
stones,  but  he  does  not  class  them  as  the  same  kind  of  ceremonials. 

Frank  Hamilton  Gushing  illustrated  bird-stones  and  flat  tablets, 
and  he  thought  the  bird-stones  were  tied  on  flat  tablets  and  these 
worn  on  the  head.  I  inclined  to  that  opinion  when  I  published  "The 
Bird-Stone  Ceremonial,"  but  now  I  do  not  believe  this,  for  the  reason 
that  most  bird-stones  could  not  be  conveniently  tied  to  flat  tablets. 

That  they  are  found  in  regions  where  there  are  many  mounds 
used  to  be  stated,  but  this  is  hardly  correct.  They  have  never  been 


FIG.  417.  (S.  i-i.)  Phillips  Academy  collection. 

found  in  a  mound,  and  I  do  not  know  of  an  instance  where  they  have 
been  found  in  graves.  They  occur  more  in  northern  Ohio,  Canada, 
and  New  York  State  than  elsewhere  except  Michigan  and  Wiscon 
sin.  I  firmly  believe  that  they  were  not  made  and  used  by  mound- 
building  tribes  but  antedate  the  mound-building  period.  As  to  the 
exact  purpose  of  these  things  I  leave  others  to  judge. 

ANIMAL    AND    HUMAN    EFFIGIES 

There  are  many  crude  effigies,  many  grotesque  sculptures  found 
in  this  country.  There  are  also  stones  that  are  in  the  border-lands 
between  highly  developed  problematical  forms  and  effigies.  Fig. 
413  presents  a  group  of  these  from  the  Peabody  Museum  at  Cam 
bridge,  Massachusetts.  The  upper  row  appears  to  be  whale  effigies. 
In  the  lower  row  are  small  stone  bowls  or  paint-cups. 


FIG.  418  (S.  1-2)  shows  four  peculiar  stones  from  the  Salt  River  Valley,  Arizona.  The 
one  in  the  lower  left-hand  corner  illustrates  an  armadillo;  in  the  upper  right-hand  corner, 
an  owl.  The  others  are  unknown  effigies.  These  Arizona  specimens  are  all  of  volcanic 
tufa,  and  are  typical  of  the  region.  Large  numbers  were  found  by  Mr.  Gushing  during  his 
explorations  of  the  ruins  of  the  Salt  River  Valley,  and  something  like  a  hundred  were  dug 
up  by  me  for  Mr.  Peabody  when  I  visited  the  region.  The  purpose  of  these  is  unknown. 


22        THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  419.  (S.  i-i.)  Front  view  of  the  "Owl  Ornament,"  found  in  a  grave  at  Fort  An 
cient,  Ohio,  1882.  Collection  of  the  Ohio  State  University.  One  of  the  first  specimens 
collected  by  W.  K.  Moorehead  at  Fort  Ancient.  Material,  graphite  slate. 

Few  finer  problematical  forms  have  been  found.  There  are  two  grooves  on  the  face 
and  back  of  this  object.  One  runs  from  the  top  down  about  an  inch  and  one  half,  inter 
secting  the  other.  In  the  angles  formed  by  these  two  grooves  are  two  perforations  ex 
tending  through  the  stone  and  drilled  from  each  side.  At  the  bottom  is  an  oval-shaped  hole 
on  the  face  extending  through.  This  latter  perforation  does  not  exhibit  an  oval  shape  from 
the  rear,  but  presents  a  round  appearance.  Around  this  oval-shaped  depression  are  four 
teen  holes,  each  drilled  about  one  eighth  of  an  inch  deep.  They  present  the  form  of  an 
arrow-head,  or  a  heart.  On  the  reverse  side  are  two  holes  above  the  oval  perforations 
which  are  not  drilled  through  the  stone,  and  which  lie  just  under  the  horizontal  groove. 
The  remarkable  part  of  this  stone  is  that  the;  symbol,  three,  occurs  on  it  in  three  places 
—  on  the  face  twice  and  on  the  reverse  once. 


GROUND   STONE  23 

Quite  a  number  of  these  whale  and  other  effigies  have  been  found 
in  New  England;  but  effigy- work  in  stone,  the  making  of  art-forms 
from  life,  was  more  general  in  the  South  and  Southwest  than  in  New 
England,  where,  indeed,  effigy  animals  are  exceedingly  rare. 

Fig.  415  illustrates  an  effigy  of  a  bear.  This  was  found  in  Salem 
during  excavations  for  a  cellar  and  is  in  the  Peabody  Museum  of 
that  city. 

Mr.  L.  C.  Deming,  Ft.  Wayne,  Indiana,  owns  a  peculiar  effigy  in 
stone  about  six  inches  in  height.  Just  what  it  represents  I  am  unable 
to  state,  as  the  ancient  workman's  sculpture  is  crude. 

Fig.  416  shows  a  number  of  spindle- whorls  to  which  reference  has 


FIG.  420.  (S.  i -i.)  The  "Owl  Ornament,"  rear  view. 


24        THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  421.  (S.  i -i.)  Salem  collection.   This  shows  a  grooved  bar-like  object  at  the 
bottom,  and  a  curious  effigy  pendant  above. 


FIG.  422.  (S.  1-3.)  W.  E.  Bryan's  collection,  Elmira,  New  York. 


GROUND   STONE  25 

been  made  elsewhere.  These  are  made  of  clay,  hard  baked.  In 
the  lower  centre  is  a  stone  idol  found  in  a  large  ruin  at  Mesa, 
Arizona.  It  is  made  of  hard  redstone.  There  is  a  little  depression 
in  the  top  of  the  head  half  an  inch  in  depth.  Near  the  top  is  a  curious 
animal  effigy  with  eight  legs.  This  is  made  of  fine-grained  lava  and 
has  a  depression  in  the  centre  about  one  and  one  half  inches  in 
diameter. 

Fig.  417  illustrates  two  effigies,  full  size,  of  black  onyx,  each  typi- 


FiG.423.  (S.  i-i.)  From  a  mound 
near  South  Carrollton,  Kentucky. 
Presented  to  the  Phillips  Academy 
Museum,  by  F.  G.  Hilman,  New 
Bedford,  Massachusetts. 

fying  a  bird.  These  are  very  finely  carved  and  were  found  in  south 
ern  Arizona  in  a  ruin,  by  the  expedition  sent  there  by  Mr.  R.  S. 
Peabody,  1897-98. 

The  human  form  was  frequently  indicated  in  stone  by  the  Indians. 
These  sculptures  range  from  very  crude  delineations,  which  I  have 
not  shown,  to  the  first  steps  in  more  ambitious  work,  such  as  is 
exhibited  in  Fig.  422.  This  stone  head  was  found  near  Elmira, 
New  York,  by  Mr.  Ward  E.  Bryan.  The  original  was  seven  or  eight 
inches  in  length.  It  is  cut  out  of  fine-grained  sandstone.  On  the 
back  are  curious  lines  and  dots  as  shown  in  the  figure.  The  face 
shown  is  much  cruder  than  that  in  Fig.  423.  That  face  is  of  the 
peculiar  type  known  as  "Mound-Builder."  I  have  referred  to  this 
resemblance  elsewhere.  Inspection  of  Fig.  499  in  the  pipe  series, 
found  by  Professor  Mills  at  Adena,  in  the  Scioto  Valley,  Ohio,  and 


26        THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  424.  (S.  1-4.)  An  idol  and  three  flutes.    B.  H.  Young's  collection. 

The  long  flute  at  the  top  is  made  of  slate.  The  head  is  an  imitation  of  a  serpent's  head. 
It  has  five  holes  regularly  spaced.  It  is  evident  that  a  small  block  of  wood  was  placed  in 
the  mouth  to  lessen  the  wind  space. 

The  central  one  is  of  stone,  open  at  both  ends,  with  four  holes. 

The  smallest  one,  of  bone,  is  open  at  both  ends. 

On  each  of  these  instruments  from  seven  to  nine  different  sounds  can  be  made. 

The  idol  was  found  in  Tennessee,  near  the  Kentucky  line.  It  is  made  of  dark  steatite, 
and  is  unique  in  representing  the  full  human  form. 

of  the  idol,  Fig.  426,  and  some  of  the  effigy  pottery,  will  acquaint 
readers  with  this  curious,  strongly  marked,  Mound-Builder  type  of 
feature.  Other  examples  are  to  be  seen  in  books  treating  of  Ameri 
can  archaeology. 

The  idol  presented  in  Fig.  426  is  a  remarkable  effigy.  Not  a 
few  of  these  have  been  found  near  the  Etowah  Group  of  mounds  in 
Georgia.  All  such  idols  have  either  been  found  in  graves  or  on  the 
sites  of  Southern  villages,  where  population  wras  considerable.  I  never 
knew  of  them  being  found  in  a  mound,  although  there  may  have  been 
such  discoveries. 


GROUND   STONE 


FIG.  425.  (S.  1-3.)  B.  H.  Young's  collection.  Wooden  image  found  many  years  ago 
in  Bell  County,  Kentucky,  near  Middlesboro,  in  a  cave  by  a  turkey-hunter.  It  is  made 
of  yellow  pine,  and  is  of  form  similar  to  the  stone  effigies  found  in  Kentucky.  The  ears 
are  pierced  for  ear-rings,  and  the  wrists  grooved  for  bracelets. 


28 


THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


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CHAPTER   XXVI 

GROUND    STONE 

STONE    PIPES 

PREVIOUS  to  the  discovery  of  America,  that  strange  custom  of 
smoking  was  confined  to  the  New  World  natives.  There  have  been 
some  vague  references  to  inhaling  of  smoke  by  other  ancient  peoples 
elsewhere  in  the  world.  But  these  are  still  in  the  realm  of  doubt. 
Certain  it  is  that  the  burning  of  tobacco,  dried  leaves,  bark,  etc.,  in 
stone,  bone,  clay,  or  copper  receptacles  was  not  known  to  any  con 
siderable  number  of  men  before  Columbus  set  out  upon  his  uncer 
tain  voyage,  on  an  unknown  sea. 

There  is  an  extensive  literature  dealing  with  pipes  and  smoking 
customs  of  America,  and  it  is  unfortunate  that  I  am  unable  to 
produce  more  than  a  portion  of  what  has  been  said  by  the  early 
travelers,  and  later  scholars  and  others,  regarding  this  peculiar 
custom.  However,  there  are  two  important  publications  access 
ible  to  all  readers.  The  first  was  published  by  Mr.  Joseph  D. 
McGuire.1  Mr.  McGuire  illustrates  his  paper  with  two  hundred 
and  thirty-one  figures  and  five  plates.  The  other  paper  was  writ 
ten  by  Mr.  George  A.  West  and  contains  seventeen  plates  and 
two  hundred  and  three  figures.2  Mr.  McGuire  made  a  study  of 
pipes  and  smoking  customs  throughout  the  United  States;  Mr. 
West,  of  the  St.  Lawrence  basin  and  particularly  Wisconsin, 
Michigan,  Minnesota,  and  Canada.  These  two  publications  will 
give  readers  abundant  material  for  consideration,  and  because 
of  their  excellence,  I  have  made  this  somewhat  lengthy  reference 
to  them. 

In  addition  to  the  monographs  cited,  there  are  numerous  shorter 
articles  scattered  throughout  various  publications  and  reports. 
These  will  be  found  if  readers  refer  to  the  Bibliography. 

In  the  following  pages,  I  follow  the  classifications  made  by  Messrs. 
McGuire  and  West  with  very  few  changes.  These  must  both  stand 

1  Report  of  the  United  States  National  Museum,  1897,  pages  361-645. 

2  Wisconsin  Archeologist,  April-August,  1905,  pages  40-171. 


THE   STONE   AGE   IN    NORTH   AMERICA 


as  the  best  that  have  appeared  on  the  subject  up  to  the  present 

time. 

Since  Mr.  McGuire's  paper  was  published  there  have  been  large 

additions  to  pipe  collections  in  the  museums  and  private  collections. 
As  to  the  number  of  pipes  in  the  Smithsonian, 
American  Museum,  Peabody  Museum,  and 
others,  I  do  not  know,  but  one  might  venture 
the  opinion  that  each  of  these  three  institutions 
have  at  the  least  fifteen  hundred  or  two  thou 
sand  pipes  scattered  throughout  the  collections; 
and  the  smaller  museums  in  proportion.  Pro 
fessor  W.  C.  Mills  informs  me  that  there  are 
two  hundred  and  forty  pipes  in  the  exhibit  under 
his  charge  at  Columbus,  comprising  collections 
owned  by  the  Ohio  State  University  and  the 
Ohio  Archaeological  and  Historical  Society.  They 
are  divided  as  follows:  Monitor,  twenty-eight; 
effigy,  forty ;  tubular  twenty-four ; miscellaneous, 
one  hundred  and  forty-eight.  In  the  Andover 
collection  there  are  about  one  hundred  and 
seventy  pipes. 

There  are  two  large  private  collections  of 
pipes  in  America.  Mr.  John  A.  Beck  of  Pitts- 
burg  owns  about  eighteen  hundred  pipes  of  va 
rious  kinds  from  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
Mr.  George  A.  West  reports  that  there  are  six 
hundred  in  his  possession. 

Pipes,  from  their  very  nature,  were  probably 
more  highly  prized  among  our  aborigines  than 
any  other  articles.  The  pipe  was  sacred,  and  it 
was  not  until  Europeans,  with  their  superior 
civilization,  took  up  the  smoking  custom,  that 
it  became  a  habit  and  totally  lost  its  original 
significance. 
It  is  quite  likely  that  pipes  were  more  generally  exchanged  among 

tribes  than  other  artifacts.    Possibly,  one  should  except  copper,  but 

I  am  not  even  sure  of  that.    We  find  Northern  forms  South,  Eastern 

types  West,  and  a  general  indication  that  aboriginal  barter  or  trade 

in  pipes  was  extensive. 


FIG.  427.  (S.  i-i.) 
Stone  pipe-bowl  made 
ofcatlinite.  Collection 
of  the  University  of  To 
ronto,  Ontario.  Found 
by  Henry  Montgomery 
in  a  mound  in  western 
Manitoba. 


GROUND   STONE  — STONE   PIPES 


FIG.  428.  (S.  about  1-2.)  Pipes  from  North  Dakota  mounds.  Explorations  of  Henry 
Montgomery,  (a)  Pipe-bowl  of  catlinite.  (b)  Piece  of  catlinite  pipe-bowl  which  had  been 
cut  off  before  burial,  (c)  Catlinite  pipe,  2^  inches  in  length,  (d)  Large  bowl  of  catlinite 
pipe,  10^/4  inches  long;  from  Ramsey  County,  (e)  Catlinite  pipe-bowl  found  with  the 
piece  of  pipe  shown  in  (6).  (/)  Pipe-bowl  made  from  deer  antler;  length,  about  4  inches. 
(g)  Clay  pipe,  bent;  length,  5  inches;  found  in  burial-pit  in  Benson  County.  (70  Catlinite 
pipe-bowl,  I  }/2  inches  long,  (i)  Straight  bowl  of  clay  pipe;  length,  2%  inches;  found  in 
burial-pit  in  Ramsey  County.  (See  Fig.  429.) 


32         THE   STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  429.    (S.  about  1-2.)    Pipes  from  North  Dakota  mounds.    Described  under  Fig. 
428.    (American  Anthropologist,  vol.  8,  no.  4,  plate  33.) 

The  Classification  of  Pipes 

No  one  save  Mr.  J.  D.  McGuire  has  attempted  to  group  these 
objects.  In  his  classification,  Mr.  McGuire  presented  four  plates 
in  which  he  showed  the  distribution  of  fifteen  types  of  pipes.  I  have 
followed  his  numbers,  but  instead  of  presenting  a  map,  have  named 
states  or  localities,  from  which  these  were  taken. 

1.  Curved-base  mound  pipe.    Mississippi  Valley,  north  of  the  Ohio  and 

west  of  Pennsylvania.    Also  the  Great  Lakes  basin. 

2.  Heavy  bird  or  animal  pipe.   South  of  the  Ohio  and  east  of  the  Missis 

sippi. 

3.  Tubular  pipe.    East  of  the  Mississippi,  and  from  central  Ohio  east. 

Throughout  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Pacific  Coast. 

4.  Iroquoian  clay  pipe.   New  England  to  New  York ;  Ohio,  Michigan,  and 

West  Virginia. 

5.  Iroquoian     grotesque    bird-pipe.     The   same   region.      Also   eastern 

Canada. 

6.  Iroquoian  rectangular  pipe.    Eastern  Canada  and  New  York. 

7.  Disc  or  jewsharp  pipe.    Mississippi  Valley,  central  portion. 

8.  Biconical  pipe.    Southern  Mississippi  Valley,  east  of  the  Mississippi 

and  south  of  the  Ohio.    Also  Ohio  and  Michigan. 


GROUND   STONE  — STONE   PIPES 


33 


9.  Micmac,  keel-base  pipes.    The  St.  Lawrence  basin. 

10.  Siouan  and  catlinite  type.    The  Great  Plains. 

11.  Southern  mound  type.   The  South,  east  of  the  Mississippi,  and  north 

of  Florida. 

12.  Pueblo  pipes.   Southwest. 

13.  Rectangular   pipes,    birds,    and     ani 

mals  on  bowls.    Pennsylvania  and 
Ohio. 

14.  Monitor  pipe.    Ohio   and   Mississippi 

Valley,  north  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Ohio,  and  Wisconsin. 

15.  Bowl  and  vase-shaped  pipes.    Kansas 

and   entire  eastern    United  States, 
north  of  Alabama  and  Georgia. 

This  table  will  serve  as  a  beginning, 
but  it  is  incomplete.    Many  pipes  of 


FIG.  430.  (S.  i-i.)  Earthenware  pipe. 
Found  near  Lake  Champlain.  Collec 
tion  of  the  University  of  Vermont. 


FIG.  431.  (S.  i -i.)  Conoidal  tube 
pipe.  Collection  of  G.  A.  West,  Mil 
waukee,  Wisconsin.  Sheboygan  Coun 
ty,  red  catlinite. 


34        THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 


the  types  mentioned  by  Mr.  McGuire  are  found  in  other  sections 

than  those  named  by  him. 

The  names  of  some  pipes  may  not  be  famil 
iar  to  all  of  my  readers.  I  therefore  repeat  Mr. 
McGuire's  list  of  fifteen  pipe-types,  and  state 
opposite  each,  the  numbers  of  figures  illus 
trating  that  particular  type. 

The  fifteen  types  of  pipes  described  by  Mr. 
McGuire  are  illustrated  in  this  chapter  under 
the  following  figure  numbers  :- 

1.  Curved-base  mound  pipe.    Fig.  452. 

2.  Heavy  bird  or  animal  pipe.     Figs.  477  and 

481. 

3.  Tubular  pipe.    Figs.  428  and  446. 

4.  Iroquoian  clay  pipe.    Upper  specimen,  465. 

5.  Iroquoian  grotesque  bird-pipe.    Fig.  470. 

6.  Iroquoian  rectangular  pipe.  Central  specimen, 

Fig.  465. 

7.  Disc  or  jewsharp  pipe.    Fig.  447. 

8.  Biconical  pipe.    Right  specimen,  Fig.  489. 

9.  Micmacs,  keel-base   pipes.    One  in  Fig.  453; 

left  specimen  in  Fig.  464. 
10.  Siouan  and  catlinite  type.    Fig.  437. 
1  1  .  Southern  mound  type.  Specimen  K  in  Fig.  463. 

12.  Pueblo  pipes.    (No  figures  presented,  but  they 

resemble  those  in  Figs.  428,  446.) 

13.  Rectangular  pipes,  birds  and  animals  on  bowls. 

Fig.  496,   specimen  in  the  lower  left-hand 
corner. 

14.  Monitor  pipe.    Figs.  451,  449. 

15.  Bowl  and  vase-shaped  pipes.    Fig.  458,  central 

specimen,  Fig.  464. 

Certain  areas  are  characterized  by  par 
ticular  forms  of  pipes,  and  in  regions  where 
the  population  was  more  dense,  several  types 
of  pipes  are  usually  found,  thus  indicating 
that  they  were  taken  from  one  region  to  an- 

other 

.   One  fact  stands  out  prominently  with  re- 

Alabama.    Collection    of      ference  to  these  pipes,  and  it  is  that  any  one 
J.  T.  Reeder,  Michigan.         who  is  familiar  with  conditions  under  which 


FIG.  432.  rs.  a  little  over 

1-3.)   Found  in  a  mound 


GROUND   STONE  — STONE   PIPES  35 


> 


FIG.  433.  (S.  1-2.)  Collection  of  S.  Van  Rensselaer,  Newark,  New  Jersey. 


36        THE  STONE  AGE   IN    NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  434.   (S.  1-2.)   Pottery  pipes  from  Simcoe  and  Durham  counties,  Ontario,  Canada. 
Toronto  University  collection.   Characteristic  of  northern  central  Ontario. 


GROUND   STONE  — STONE   PIPES 


37 


FIG.  435.  Peculiar  tube  pipes.  Collection  of  G.  A.  West,  Milwaukee, 
Wisconsin.  Tubular  and  trumpet-like  pipes  are  shown  in  Figs.  427-28, 
and  430.  These  are  considered  to  be  earliest  forms.  More  complicated 
tubes  are  observed  in  Fig.  435.  Mr.  West  described  these  in  his  paper, 
previously  cited. 

pipes  are  found  can  distinguish  the  prehistoric  from  the  modern  in 
most  instances.  Of  course  there  are  exceptions.  Many  modern 
pipes  show  the  marks  of  steel  tools,  whereas  the  ancient  forms  do  not. 
Certain  specimens  appear  to  those  who  have  done  a  great  deal  of 
field  work  as  ancient,  whereas  others  do  not.  This  is  not  merely 
a  matter  of  opinion.  I  have  found  it  very  difficult,  during  my 
lifetime,  to  make  those  observers  who  have  no  intimate  knowledge 
of  field  conditions  realize  the  importance  of  this  statement.  There 
is  no  convenient  formula  whereby  one  may  explain  to  a  skeptic, 
how  one  specimen  appears  old  and  another  does  not.  I  shall  con 
sider  this  subject  at  greater  length  in  the  Conclusions. 

Various  remarks  offered  here  and  there  on  the  pages  of  this 
chapter  may  be  taken  to  represent  my  conclusions  as  to  pipes.  I 
have  not  offered  a  summary  at  the  end  of  the  chapter,  preferring 
to  state  pertinent  observations,  suggested  by  the  figures  illustrating 
pipes,  as  they  occur. 

Of  the  fifteen  types  named  by  Mr.  McGuire,  the  tubular,  rect 
angular,  and  slightly  curved  pipe  (of  the  forms  shown  in  Fig.  433), 


38        THE   STONE   AGE   IN    NORTH    AMERICA 


FIG.  436.  (S.  2-3.)  Onyx  pipe-bowl  with  wooden  stem.  From  cave- 
house  ruins  in  San  Juan  County,  Utah,  February,  1894.  The  pipe  lies 
against  a  fragmentary  skin  covering  or  robe.  Henry  Montgomery, 
Toronto,  Ontario. 


GROUND   STONE  — STONE   PIPES  39 


FIG.  437.  (S.  1-2.)  Diminutive  Siouan  pipes.     Collection  of  G.  A.  West.   Milwaukee 

Wisconsin. 


40        THE   STONE   AGE   IN    NORTH   AMERICA 

are  most  common  and  widespread  in  the  United  States.  As  some 
years  have  elapsed  since  Mr.  McGuire's  paper  was  written,  monitor 
pipes  in  numbers  have  been  reported  from  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  and 
Indiana. 

The  modern  Sioux,  Ojibwa,  and  Winnebago  and  other  pipes  be 
tween  the  years  1700  and   1850  are  interesting  by  way  of  compari- 


FIG.  439.  (S.  1-2.)  Vase-shaped  pipe.  John 
Weber's  collection.  "Found  by  Mr.  John 
Weber,  in  Killare,  Juneau  County,  Wiscon 
sin,  in  1895,  is  of  a  pinkish-colored  stone,  and 
exhibits  on  its  two  opposite  faces  etched  fig 
ures  of  some  animal,  possibly  a  lizard.  The 
figure  is  after  a  sketch  furnished  by  Mr.  W. 
H.  Elkey." 


FIG.  438.  (S.  1-2.)  Peculiar 
stone  pipe.  Collection  of  H.  M. 
Whelpley,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. 


FIG.  440.  (S.  2-3.)  Double  conoidal  pipe.  J. 
P.  Schumacher's  collection.  "A  very  attractive 
example,  from  Brown  County,  Wisconsin,  is  of 
dark  sandstone,  nearly  4  inches  long,  2^/2  inches 
high,  3  inches  wide,  and  oval  in  shape  with  a  flat 
base.  Its  stem  and  bowl  cavities  are  each  fully 
an  inch  in  diameter  at  the  surface,  and  are  placed 
at  right  angles  to  each  other.  This  pipe  was  evi 
dently  pecked  into  shape,  both  bowl  and  stem 
holes  being  made  by  the  same  process." 


GROUND   STONE-STONE   PIPES  41 

son.    Mr.  West1  wrote  a  few  paragraphs  concerning  them,  which  I 
quote. 

"No  pipe  was  ever  regarded  by  the  American  aborigine  with 
greater  reverence  and  respect  than  the  calumet.  It  was  used  in  the 
ratification  of  treaties  and  alliances;  in  the  friendly  reception  of 
strangers;  as  a  symbol  in  declaring  war  or  peace,  and  afforded  its 
bearer  safe  transport  among  savage  tribes.  Its  acceptance  sacredly 


FIG.  441.  (S.  1-2.)  Black  pottery  pipe.  Collection  of  G.  A.  West,  Milwaukee,  Wiscon 
sin.  "This  is  a  type  of  Southern  mound  pipe  taken  from  a  mound  in  Pepin  County,  Wiscon 
sin.  It  is  well  tempered  with  shell,  contains  eight  knobs  or  coffee-bean  protuberances 
about  the  bowl,  and  the  stem  is  ornamented  on  one  side  by  a  zigzag  line,  probably  in 
tended  to  represent  the  emblem  of  lightning.  This  pipe  is  3%  inches  long,  and  the  only 
one  of  its  kind  so  far  found  in  this  state." 

sealed  the  terms  of  peace,  and  its  refusal  was  regarded  as  a  rejection 
of  them. 

"Calumets  made  of  steatite,  limestone,  sandstone,  and  granite, 
are  often  found,  but  a  large  majority  of  them  are  made  of  catlinite, 
a  compact  clay  slate,  named  after  Mr.  George  Catlin,  who  lived 
for  many  years  among  the  Indians,  and  to  whom  great  credit  is  due 
for  his  many  portraits  and  other  paintings  true  to  aboriginal  life. 
The  color  of  catlinite  is  usually  cherry  red,  often  mottled  and  shad 
ing  into  ash,  grey,  or  black.  This  material  was  quarried  by  the  In 
dians  in  several  places  in  Minnesota,  Iowa,  South  Dakota,  Missouri, 
and  in  Barren  County,  Wisconsin.  Specimens  of  *  pipe-stone'  are 

1  "  The  Aboriginal  Pipes  of  Wisconsin,"  Wisconsin  Archeologist,  vol.  IV,  nos.  3  and  4, 
p.  83. 


42        THE   STONE  AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 

sometimes  secured  from  the  glacial  drift.  Pipes  of  catlinite  are  not 
necessarily  of  modern  make.  Examples  have  been  found,  over  a 
wide  area,  in  Indian  mounds  and  graves.  In  1880  a  broken  pipe  of 
this  material  was  found  by  Ole  Rasmussen,  in  the  town  of  Farming- 
ton,  Waupaca  County,  while  digging  a  well,  eighteen  or  twenty  feet 
below  the  surface.  The  material  has  been  known,  under  different 
names,  ever  since  the  Discovery. 

"  Catlin,  who  in  1835  visited  the  pipe-stone  quarries  of  Minnesota, 
had  previously  found  catlinite  '  in  the  hands  of  the  savages  of  every 


FIG.  442.  (S.  i-i.)  A  pipe  of  banded  slate  from  the  collection 
of  Albert  L.  Addis,  Albion,  Indiana.  Pipes  of  slate  are  not  want 
ing,  and  they  are  usually  either  rounded  or  angular.  It  is  seldom 
that  the  banded  slate  is  worked  into  pipe  effigies. 

tribe,  and  nearly  every  individual  in  the  tribe  has  his  pipe  made 
of  it.'  After  a  visit  to  the  famous  quarries,  Catlin  concludes  as 
follows:  'From  the  very  numerous  marks  of  ancient  and  modern 
diggings  or  excavations,  it  would  appear  that  this  place  has  been 
for  many  centuries  resorted  to  for  the  redstone ;  and  from  the  great 
number  of  graves  and  remains  of  ancient  fortifications  in  it's  vicinity, 
it  would  seem,  as  well  as  from  their  actual  traditions,  that  the 
Indians  have  long  held  this  place  in  high  superstitious  estimation; 
also  it  has  been  the  resort  of  different  tribes  who  have  made  their 
regular  pilgrimages  here  to  renew  their  pipes.'  "  1 

1  .\orth  American  Indian. 


GROUND   STONE --STONE   PIPES 


43 


FIG.  443.  (S.  4-5.)  Handled  disc 
pipe.  Collection  of  G.  A.  West,  Mil 
waukee,  Wisconsin.  A  rare  old  spe 
cimen  found  in  a  mound  near  Dela- 
van,  Walworth  County,  Wisconsin, 
of  greenish-colored  limestone,  the 
color  probably  due  to  copper  stains. 


FIG.  444.  (S.  1-2.)  Type  of  moni 
tor  pipe.  Collection  of  G.  A.  West, 
Milwaukee, Wisconsin.  "Found  near 
Buffalo  Creek,  Nelson  County,  Vir 
ginia  ;  of  dark  schist,  is  5  inches  long. 
It  has  an  alate  stem,  running  the 
length  of  the  centre  of  which  is 
a  pronounced  ridge.  The  largest 
specimen  of  this  type  so  far  encoun 
tered  is  probably  a  'Great  Pipe,' 
having  a  bowl  8  inches  long,  being 
upward  of  17  inches  in  total  length, 
which  was  found  in  a  mound  in 
Marion  County,  Kentucky." 


FIG.  445.  (8.4-5.)  Short-base  mon 
itor  pipe.  Collection  of  S.D.Mitch 
ell.  This  specimen  was  "found  in 
the  town  of  Aurora,  Marquette 
County,  Wisconsin,  is  of  drab  slate, 
2 1/2  inches  long,  the  end  broken 
away,  base  rounded,  and  is  orna 
mented  near  the  stem  end  on  each 
side  by  three  deep  grooves.  A  second 
example  of  the  same  shape  in  G.  A. 
XVest's  collection,  found  by  Mr.  Au 
gust  Battle,  in  the  town  of  Scott, 
Sheboygan  County,  Wisconsin,  in 
1901,  is  of  drab  steatite.  The  top 
of  its  bowl  is  ornamented  by  four 
sets  of  cross-lines,  of  three  lines 
each.  The  bowl  cavities  in  each  pipe 
are  irregularly  conical  in  shape." 


44        THE   STONE   AGE    IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

In  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  as  well  as  southern  Ohio,  where  the 
population  was  dense,  there  are  examples  of  nearly  all  the  pipes 
except  the  Iroquois  and  the  catlinite.  The  few  of  these  found  in 
that  region  must  be  set  down  as  strays. 

The  study  of  several  specimens  illustrated  by  both  McGuire  and 


FIG.  446.   (S.  1-2.)   Five    tubular  pipes,  from  the  collection  of  James  A.  Barr,  Stockton, 

California. 

West  and  the  comparison  of  the  fifteen  figures  presented  in  "  The 
Stone  Age  "  will  acquaint  readers  writh  the  distribution  of  forms  and 
types.  The  striking  thing  in  all  this,  and  it  may  be  verified  by 
inspection  of  any  large  mound  collection,  is  that  the  types  shown 
in  Figs.  435,  437,  439,  and  465  are  usually  surface  finds  and  may  be 
distinguished  from  specimens  found  in  mounds  and  from  various 
village-sites. 


GROUND   STONE  — STONE   PIPES 


45 


FIG.  447.    (S.  i-i.)  Handled  disc  pipe.   H.  P.  Hamilton's  collection. 


46 


THE  STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  448.  (S.  i-i.)  Collection  of  Leslie  W.  Hills,  Fort  Wayne,  Indiana. 
From  Kosciusko  County,  Indiana. 


FIG.  449.  (S.  2-5.)  Straight-base  monitor  pipe,  Logan  collection,  Beloit  College.  "It 
was  ploughed  up  in  an  early  day  by  Mr.  L.  Craigs,  on  Section  30,  Eagle  Township,  Rich- 
land  County,  is  of  drab  steatite  and  finely  polished.  It  is  9  inches  long,  2^4  inches  wide 
at  the  base,  3  inches  across  the  flange  of  the  bowl,  with  the  bowl  cavity  %  inch  in  its 
greatest  diameter,  and  made  with  a  tubular  drill.  This  is  certainly  one  of  the  finest  ex 
amples  of  the  straight-base  monitor  pipe  as  yet  found  in  Wisconsin." 


GROUND   STONE  — STONE    PIPES  47 


FIG.  450.  (S.  i-i.)  This  figure  shows  the  top  view  of  pipe  shown  in  Fig.  451,  and  is  from 
the  collection  of  Albert  L.  Addis,  Albion,  Indiana.    Found  in  northern  Indiana. 

Mr.  West  has  kindly  permitted  me  to  reproduce  portions  of  his 
valuable  paper  on  pipes,  and  I  am  sorry  that  space  is  insufficient 
to  quote  his  descriptions  of  the  numerous  figures  he  has  loaned  me. 
Referring  again  to  the  Siouan  pipes  (Fig.  437),  it  requires  no  skill 
to  distinguish  these  modern  forms  from  the  more  ancient.  Many 
of  the  pipes  shown  in  that  figure  will  apply  to  other  living  tribes 
as  well  as  the  Sioux. 

One  may  suppose  that  the  tubular  pipe  soon  developed  into  other 
forms.  That  is,  of  course,  taking  it  for  granted  that  the  tubular 
pipe  is  the  first  form.  Modifications  of  the  tube  tending  toward  the 
rectangular  are  often  met  with,  which  seems  to  bear  out  this  theory. 
Be  that  as  it  may,  we  have  in  Fig.  438  a  pipe  from  Dr.  Whelpley's 
collection,  oval  in  outline,  curiously  ornamented  with  circular  de 
pressions,  and  which  is  hardly  of  the  tubular  class,  but  seems  to  be 


FIG.  451.  (S.  i-i.)  Collection  of  A.  L.  Addis,   Albion,  Indiana. 


48        THE   STONE  AGE   IN    NORTH   AMERICA 

a  modification  of  the  same.  Instead  of  being  perforated  through 
its  long  diameter,  the  bowl  is  about  an  inch  from  the  broad  end. 
Such  a  pipe  as  this  is  of  rare  occurrence. 

It  will  be  seen  from  an  inspection  of  either  Mr.  West's  or  Mr. 
McGuire's  papers,  as  well  as  through  a  study  of  any  museum  col 
lection,  or  of  the  various  figures  presented  in  this  section,  that  pipes 
on  which  there  are  carvings  or  decorations,  or  pipes  made  in  imita 
tion  of  life-figures,  are  quite  as  frequently  found  as  plain  and  un- 
ornamented  pipes.  Why  so  much  skill  should  be  employed  on  these 


FIG.  452.  (S.  about  1-3.)  Large,  platform  pipe  from  a  burial.   Length,  5  1-5  inches. 
W.  C.  Mills's  explorations. 

pipes,  whereas  the  flat  surfaces  of  slate  gorgets  and  ornaments  could 
have  been  more  easily  decorated,  is  a  problem.  This  may,  however, 
be  accounted  for  by  the  sacred  significance  accorded  to  the  pipe  by 
the  savage,  for  it  was  used  in  all  ceremonial  performances,  in  the 
declaration  of  war  and  peace,  and  was  among  his  most  treasured 
possessions.  It  is  very  seldom  that  we  find  markings  or  tracings 
on  any  of  these  stone  gorgets  or  ceremonial  forms,  yet  on  the  pipes, 
as  remarked  above,  ornamentation  is  the  rule.  All  of  this  is  signi 
ficant  to  me,  and  I  think  that  subsequently  we  shall  be  able  to  draw 
some  valuable  lessons  from  this  peculiarity. 

The  Northern  pipes,  the  pipes  from  the  country  west  of  the  Mis 
sissippi,  excepting  of  course  the  calumets,  appear  to  be  smaller  as 
a  rule  than  the  Southern  pipes,  or  the  mound  pipes.  One  might  say 
that  many  of  these  were  individual  and  sometimes  emblematic 
pipes  rather  than  council  pipes.  It  must,  however,  not  be  forgotten 
that'\vith  the  Indians  of  the  Great  Lakes  region  especially,  all  signi 
ficance  was  attached  to  the  stem  and  its  ornamentation  rather 
than  to  the  bowl.  Fig.  437  shows  the  well-known  Siouan  types  of 


GROUND   STONE  — STONE   PIPES 


49 


FIG.  454.  (S.  i-i.)   This  is  a  straight-base  monitor 
pipe   from   the   collection  of   George  A.  West.    It  is 

FIG.  453.  (S.  1-3.)  Collection  of  Les-     made  of  greenish  steatite  and  was  found  in  Milwau- 
lie  W.  Hills,  Fort  Wayne,  Indiana.          kee  County,  Wisconsin.   It  is  a  beautiful  specimen. 


50        THE  STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  455.  (S.  i-i.)  Collection  of  George  Little,  Xenia,  Ohio. 


fuHSITY 

OF 

CALIFO*^ 


GROUND   STONE  — STONE   PIPES  51 

pipes  of  that  people  from  the  time  of  their  migration  to  what  is 
now  known  as  Wisconsin.  It  is  therefore  possible  that  some  of  the 
pipes  of  this  place  are  several  centuries  old,  while  others  are  dis 
tinctly  of  modern  make. 

There  has  been  some  discussion  as  to  the  part  played  by  catlin 
ite  in  aboriginal  trade  or  exchange.  Catlinite  does  not  appear  to  be 
as  old  as  other  stones.  It  has  been  my  theory  that  the  catlinite 
quarry  was  of  recent  discovery.  By  recent,  I  mean  within  two  or 
three  thousand  years  or  less.  Catlinite  pipes  are  frequently  found  in 
the  mounds  and  graves  of  Wisconsin,  but  not  in  those  of  the  South 
in  any  considerable  numbers. 

In  fact  their  occurrence  there  is 
very  rare,  yet  they  are  found  in 
great  numbers  in  modern  graves, 
in  village-sites  where  tribes  have 
lived  in  the  historic  period.  This 
in  itself  is  significant. 


FIG.  456.  (S.  i -i.)  Collection  of 
H.  E.  Towns,  Fond  du  Lac,  Wis- 


FiG.457-  (S.  i-i.)  This  pipe  was  ploughed 
up  five  miles  east  of  Delaware,  Ohio.  Col 
lection  of  Frank  L.  drove,  Delaware,  Ohio. 


52        THE   STONE  AGE    IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

Fig.  446  shows  five  tubular  pipes  from  California,  collection  of 
Professor  James  A.  Barr.  These  are  all  specialized  forms,  and  some 
what  different  in  the  method  of 
treatment,  being  highly  polished 
and  ornamented  by  rings  carved 
in  relief. 

The  disc  pipe  is  placed  in  a  class 


FIG.  458.  (S.  i-i.)  Found  about  four 
miles  north  of  Pierceton,  Indiana.  Col 
lection  of  W.  F.  Matchett,  Pierceton, 
Indiana. 


FIG.  459.    (S.  1-5.)   University  of  Vermont 
collection. 


by  itself  by  Mr.  McGuire.  We  have  six  of  these  at  Andover,  all 
from  graves  at  the  mouth  of  the  Wabash,  southern  Indiana.  One 
of  these  is  shown  in  Fig.  447.  Mr.  West  remarks  as  follows  regard 
ing  this  type  of  pipe:  - 

'The  disc  pipe,  in  the  writer's  opinion,  is  an  old  type,  and  was  in 
use  by  the  aborigines  of  this  country  long  before  the  coming  of  the 
whites.  Authorities,  however,  differ  as  to  this  conclusion.  General 
Gates  P.  Thruston  suggests  that  the  stem-holes  of  the  disc  pipe 
being  funnel-shaped,  it  may  safely  be  regarded  as  an  old  type. 

"Mr.  J.  D.  McGuire  writes:  'The  shape  is  so  suggestive  of  the 
jewsharp,  an  instrument  used  extensively  in  trade  with  the  Indians, 
as  to  indicate  that  the  pipe  itself  is  modeled  after  the  form  of  this 


GROUND   STONE  — STONE   PIPES 


53 


primitive  musical  instrument,  even  though  the  file  marks,  so  com 
mon  on  many  of  the  pipes,  are  absent  from  those  coming  under  the 
writer's  observation.' 

"A  careful  study  of  the  several  forms  of  this  type  convinces  the 
author  that  it  was  not  modeled  after  the  jewsharp.   Of  the  twenty- 


FIG.  460.  (S.  1-3.)  Collection  of  L.  \V.  Hills,  Fort  Wayne,  Indiana. 

eight  examples  in  the  author's  collection,  when  examined  with  a 
powerful  glass,  all  exhibited  innumerable  marks  and  scratches,  that 
could  have  been  made  by  the  use  of  a  piece  of  sandstone  or  flake  of 
flint.  In  no  case  were  file  marks  found. 

"  Mr.  McGuire  states:  '  Finding  them  of  catlinite  so  far  from  the 
quarries  would  indicate  that  they  are  of  no  great  age.'  If  Mr. 
McGuire's  conclusion  is  correct,  aboriginal  barter  and  trade  could 
not  have  been  carried  on  between  distant  tribes  until  within  a  com- 


54        THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH    AMERICA 

paratively  recent  date,  an  abundance  of  evidence  to  the  contrary 
notwithstanding." l 

"Fig.  447,  found  at  Baldwin's  Mills,  Waupaca  County,  the  larg 
est  handled  disc  pipe  so  far  found  in  Wisconsin,  is  of  beautiful 
dark  red  catlinite  with  pink  flecks.  Its  bowl  is  five  inches  long, 


FIG.  461.  (S.  i-i.)  Turtle  pipe  found  at  Pierceton,  In 
diana.  Front  view.  Collection  of  W.  D.  Matchett, 
Peirceton,  Indiana. 

terminating  in  a  handle  shaped  like  the  blade  of  a  hatchet,  with 
what  would  be  the  cutting  edge  ornamented  with  three  notches. 
The  disc  is  3^/2  inches  wide  and  so  thin  that  the  distance  through 
from  the  face  of  the  disk  to  the  outer  side  of  the  bowl  is  but  three 
fourths  of  an  inch.  The  stem  hole  has  the  characteristic  curve  and 
its  interior  is  nicely  polished.  Both  stem  and  bowl  holes  appear  to 
have  been  started  with  a  stone  drill  and  enlarged  with  a  wooden 
drill  used  in  conjunction  with  sand.  Under  a  glass  this  specimen 

1  "  The  Aboriginal  Pipes  of  Wisconsin,"  Wisconsin  Archeologist,  vol.  iv,  nos.  3  and  4, 
p.  130. 


GROUND   STONE  — STONE   PIPES  55 

shows  innumerable  scratches,  but  none  of  these  appear  to  have  been 
made  by  the  use  of  metal  tools.  The  same  can  be  said  of  eleven 
handled  disc  pipes  in  the  author's  collection."     Mr.  West  has  a 
record  of  one  hundred  and  four  disc  pipes  found  in  Wisconsin. 
The  fact  that  these  disc  pipes  are  frequently  made  of  catlinite 


FIG.  462.    (S.  i -i.)  Rear  view  of  Fig.  461 . 

leads  me  to  believe  that  they  are  not  as  old  as  other  forms ;  yet 
there  seems  to  be  no  evidence  of  their  use  after  the  advent  of  white 
man. 

The  pipe  with  the  curved  base  and  monitor  pipes  are  closely  re 
lated.  These  are  found  throughout  the  entire  Mississippi  Valley, 
and  are  especially  numerous  in  Illinois,  to  West  Virginia  and  from 
southern  Wisconsin  to  southern  Tennessee.  Many  beautiful  speci 
mens  have  been  taken  from  mounds  and  graves,  particularly  from 
the  mounds.  In  Figs.  449-53,  I  show  five  of  these.  Perhaps  the 
most  beautiful  ones  have  been  found  in  the  mounds  of  the  Scioto 
Valley,  Ohio. 

Just  how  this  peculiar  form  originated,  no  man  may  know.   It  was 


56        THE  STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


j  k 

FIG.  463.  (S.  1-3.)   Group  of  pipes  from  various  localities  in  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

(a)  Scioto  County,  Ohio.  (g)  Scioto  County,  Ohio. 

(b)  Ross  County,  Ohio.  (h)  Wabash  Cemetery,  Indiana. 

(c)  Pipe  made  from  a  whale's  tooth,  Alaska,  (i)    Hancock  County,  Ohio. 

(d)  Scioto  County,  Ohio.  (j)  Silver  Creek,  Morgantown,  North  Caro- 

(e)  Miami  County,  Ohio.  lina. 

(f)  Scioto  County,  Ohio.  (k)  Grovetown,  Georgia. 


GROUND  STONE-    STONE   PIPES  57 

the  favorite  among  the  prehistoric  peoples.  A  few  examples  found 
in  use  among  historic  tribes  are  very  poor  imitations  of  the  old 
forms,  and  cannot  compare  in  workmanship  and  beauty  of  finish 
with  such  as  are  removed  from  the  mounds  of  the  Middle  West  and 
the  South. 

Beginning  with  Pig.  449  and  continuing  to  Fig.  453,  and  from 
Fig.  471  through  Fig.  500,  I  present  a  series  of  pipes,  all  of  which  are 


FIG.  464.  Three  pipe-bowls.  Collection  of  Henry  Montgomery,  To 
ronto,  Ontario. 

Left.  Pipe-bowl  made  of  sandstone.  From  near  Toronto,  Ontario, 
Canada.  Length,  2%  inches. 

Centre.  Pipe-bowl  made  of  limestone.  From  Markham,  Ontario. 
Length,  3  inches. 

Right.  Pipe-bowl  made  of  white  quartzite.  Found  by  Henry  Mont 
gomery  in  Simcoe  County,  Ontario.  About  one  third  actual  size. 

decorated  either  by  incised  lines  or  by  likenesses  of  animals,  birds, 
or  human  beings,  carved  in  relief.  These  may  be  taken  as  typical 
of  any  large  series  of  pipes  in  a  public  museum,  and  represent  the 
height  of  pipe-making  art. 

As  previously  remarked,  the  decoration  seems  to  be  the  essential 
thing  in  pipes.  The  idea  of  the  maker  was  to  portray  something 
on  the  pipe  or  to  have  the  pipe  stand  for  more  than  a  mere  recep 
tacle  in  which  tobacco  was  smoked.  No  other  conclusion  is  possible 
when  we  consider  the  high  percentage  of  decorated  and  ornamented 
pipes,  and  the  surprising  number  of  pipes  worked  into  effigies. 
Fig.  469  is  a  very  clumsy  pipe  at  best,  and  the  decorations  on  it 


58        THE  STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  465.  (S.  i-i.)  Collection  of  the  Buffalo  Society  of  Natural  Sciences,  Buffalo,  New 
York.  Typical  Iroquois  pipes.  These  are  fine  examples  of  Iroquois  art  and  were  found  in 
western  New  York,  where  the  Iroquois  culture  was  high.  From  graves  at  Grand  Island, 
New  York. 


GROUND  STONE— STONE   PIPES 


59 


FIG.  466.  (S.  1-3.) 

From  a  stone  grave,  Wofford  Farm,  Hurricane 
Mills,  Humphrey  County,  Tennessee.  Material: 
red  and  brown  clay. 

Collection  of  J.  T.  Reeder,  Houghton,  Michigan. 


FIG.  467.  (S.  i -i.) 

Greenstone  pipe  found  in 
Tennessee.  Apparently  an 
Iroquois  type  of  pipe.  This 
is  a  rare  form. 

From  the  collection  of 
W.  B.  Rhodes,  Danville, 
Pennsylvania. 


6o        THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  468.  (S.  2-3.)  New  York  State  Museum  collection,  Albany,  New  York. 
Human  effigy  and  human  bird-pipes  from  Iroquois  sites  in  northwestern  New 
York.  Both  of  these  sculptures  are  unusually  fine  examples  of  art  in  pipe- 
working,  for  the  greater  part  of  Iroquois  pipes  are  plainer. 


GROUND   STONE -STONE   PIPES 


61 


may  not  indicate  age.  Examples  such  as  this  are  not  wanting,  and 
there  are  a  great  many  in  collections.  Contrasted  with  this  rough 
specimen  is  Fig.  455,  which  is  also  decorated  but  is  worked  less 
crudely. 

The  human  sculpture  of  the  priest  on  the  altar  at  Palenque,  so 
frequently  illustrated,  illustrates  an  individual  either  blowing  or 


FlG.  469.  Pottery  pipe  with  human  face;  the  stem  part  broken  off.    Simcoe  County, 
Ontario,  Canada.   Toronto  University  Museum. 

drawing  smoke  through  a  tube.  The  tube  is  ornamented  with  bands, 
and  appears  to  be  larger  at  one  end.  It  is  a  straight  and  not  a  curved 
pipe.  I  have  always  thought  that  this  interesting  figure  from  an 
cient  Palenque  typified  what  the  pipe  meant  to  the  more  cultured 
American  tribes.  There  is  a  vast  difference  between  the  use  of  the 
pipe  as  portrayed  in  that  sculpture,  and  the  degeneration  of  the 
smoking  ceremony  as  it  appears  to-day  among  modern  tribes.  We 
have  in  this  figure  the  ancient  shaman  in  full  regalia;  the  elabora- 


62        THE   STONE   AGE    IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  470.  New  York  State  Museum  collection,  Albany,  New  York.  The  New  York 
State  Museum  contains  many  fine  specimens  of  early  Iroquois  make.  The  upper  figure 
to  the  right,  with  long  stem,  is  gracefully  curved. 


GROUND  STONE  — STONE   PIPES 


FIG.  471.  (S.  i-i.)  Collection  of  Leslie  W.  Hills,  Fort  Wayne,  In 
diana.  This  is  the  form  of  bird  effigy  most  frequently  found.  That 
is,  it  is  not  common,  but  more  of  this  type  are  found  in  the  Mound- 
Builder  country  than  other  bird-forms. 

tion  with  which  the  slab  is  wrought,  and  the  fact  that  it  was  part  of 
the  sacred  altar  at  Palenque,  are  significant. 

We  have  no  such  sculptures  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  but  wre  have 
altar  mounds  in  which  effigy  and  monitor  pipes  wrere  buried.  I  have 
never  found  a  crude  pipe  in  an  altar  mound  and  I  do  not  think  that 
either  Squier  and  Davis  or  Professor  Mills  ever  found  an  example  of 
crude  art  in  an  altar  mound.  This  refers  to  original  interments,  on 
the  base-line  —  not  to  intrusive  burials.  Everything  indicates  that 
the  pipes  in  use  in  pre-Columbian  times  were  of  two  kinds,  the 
small,  individual  pipes,  and  the  large  council  pipes,  or  those  made 
use  of  at  important  functions  either  religious  or  tribal,  being  char 
acteristic.  I  have  never  observed  the  mark  of  any  steel  or  iron  tool 
on  a  mound  pipe  in  the  Ohio  Valley. 

Whether  smoking  was  discovered  through  accident,  or  developed 


FIG.  472.  (S.  1-2.)  This  form  of  pipe  is  rare  in 
Wisconsin.  But  a  few  mouth-pipes  with  curved 
bases  have  been  found  in  the  St.  Lawrence  region. 
It  may  have  been  obtained  by  trade  in  the  South 
Collection  of  J.  (i.  Pickett. 


64        THE   STONE   AGE    IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


J 

FIG.  473.  (S.  1-2.)  Collection  of  A.  J.  Powers,  Mt.  Vernon,  Iowa.  Eagle  pipe, 
Georgia.  This  remarkable  pipe  has  been  described  several  times  in  various  publica 
tions.  It  is  a  beautiful  specimen. 


GROUND   STONE  — STONE   PIPES 


from  the  use  of  the  straight  tube  in  the  hands  of  the  priests,  is  some 
thing  we  may  never  be  able  to  determine  with  accuracy. 

While  the  effigy  pipes  required  particular  skill  in  their  manufac 
ture,  yet  some  of  the  tubular,  rectangular,  and  disc  pipes,  although 
unornamented,  are  wrought  skillfully  and  brought  to  a  high  finish, 
and  the  surfaces  polished  until  almost  as  smooth  as  glass. 

I  have  often  thought  that  a  careful  catalogue  of  all  pipes  in  our 
large  museums,  with  a  detailed  statement  as  to  where  each  was 


FIG.  474.    Collection  of  Leslie  W.  Hills,  Fort  Wayne,  Indiana.  A  group  of  beautiful  mound 
pipes  from  Indiana,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee.    None  of  these  can  be  considered  modern. 

found,  would  be  of  great  value,  and  enable  us  to  prepare  accurate 
tables  as  to  these  and  their  significance  and  age.  In  this  connection 
it  is  to  be  regretted  that  greater  care  has  not  been  at  all  times 
exercised  in  securing  complete  data  relative  to  aboriginal  pipes  and 
other  artifacts  deposited  in  museums  and  private  collections,  for 
without  this  a  specimen  however  interesting  is  of  little  value  in 
solving  archaeological  problems. 

The  bird  seems  to  have  been  the  favorite  sculpture,  yet  there  are 
frequent  portrayals  of  the  frog.    I  present  three  of  them,  all  of  sand- 


66        THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  474.4.  (S.  2-3.)  Front  and  rear  view  of  pipe  from  Trigg  County,  Kentucky.  Hard, 
compact,  dark  reddish  stone.    B.  H.  Young's  collection. 


GROUND   STONE  — STONE   PIPES 


67 


stone,  in  Figs.  485  and  486,  and  a  beautiful  one,  full  size,  in  a  photo 
gravure  plate,  Fig.  500,  from  the  collection  of  Mr.  F.  P.  Graves,  Doe 
Run,  Missouri. 

Among    the  Ojibwa    Indians,   during 
observed  a  number  of  stone  pipes  in  use. 
afforded    to    study   such    among 


the  summer  of    1909,    I 
An  excellent  opportunity 


was 

these  Indians,  as  I  was  on  White  Earth 
Reservation,  Minnesota,  for  seventeen 
weeks,  and  came  in  contact  with  all 
the  full  blood  Indians  and  many  of 
the  mixed  bloods.  Being  frequently  in 
council  with  these  Indians,  I  observed 
their  pipes  with  some  care.  Except 
rectangular  pipes  of  Siouan  types, 
which  were  inlaid  with  lead  or  silver, 
most  of  the  pipes  were  exceedingly 
crude  and  far  inferior  in  every  way  to 
the  ancient  forms.  Few  Indians  owned 
inlaid  pipes.  The  major  part  of  all  the 
pipes  I  observed  were  common  egg- 
shaped  bowls  without  stem  which  were 
fitted  with  the  common  cane  or  wooden 
stem,  such  as  are  sold  in  stores  at  a 
penny  each.  Others  were  rectangular 
and  unornamented.  Two  in  use  by  old 
medicine-men,  one  smoked  by  a  Cree 
woman,  and  several  others  were  pur 
chased  by  me  and  placed  in  the  Ando- 
ver  collection. 

As  these  Ojibwa  are  all  in  possession  of  steel  tools,  one  would 
suppose  that  their  pipes  would  be  well  made.  But  on  the  con 
trary,  the  art  of  making  pipes  has  degenerated  among  them. 

While  there  are  tubular  pipes  in  California,  they  do  not  occur  in 
great  numbers,  and,  as  has  been  remarked,  other  types  of  pipes  are 
either  very  scarce  or  entirely  absent. 

It  seems  to  me  that  among  our  American  aborigines  the  finest  art 
existed  previous  to  contact  with  European  civilization.  The  finest 
sculptures  on  exhibition  in  our  museums  come  from  sites  which 
appear  to  be  prehistoric.  To  him  who  is  skeptical  and  does  not 
believe  these  statements,  I  suggest  that  he  inspect  modern  Iroquoian, 


FIG.  475.  (S.  about  i-i.)  Slate 
pipe,  bird  effigy.  Collection  of 
Mrs.  Nellie  Gowthrop,  Camden, 
Michigan. 


68 


THE   STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  476.  (S.  about  1-3.)    Collection  of  J.  T.  Reeder,  Houghton,  Michigan.  Locality, 
Tennessee.    Materials:  soapstone,  slate,  and  quartz. 


FIG.  476  A.   (S.  about  1-3.)    Collection  of  J.  T.  Reeder,  Houghton,  Michigan.   Locality, 
North  Carolina.  Material,  soapstone. 


GROUND   STONE  — STONE   PIPES 


69 


FIG.  476  B.    (S.  3-4.)    Steatite,  Barbour   County,   Kentucky.   From  a  mound  on 
Stoner's  Creek.   B.  H.  Young's  collection,  Louisville,  Kentucky. 

Siouan,  Ojibwa,  and  Cherokee  pipes,  and  compare  them  with  the 
ancient  forms  such  as  have  been  taken  from  mounds  and  graves 
in  southern  Ohio,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee. 

Most  of  these  tubular  pipes  are  much 
larger  at  one  end  than  the  other,  cor 
responding  to  the  bowl,  which  is  more 
highly  developed  in  later  forms.  There 
is  one  in  the  Andover  collection  that 
was  obtained  from  the  Hupa  Indians  of 
California  about  fifty  years  ago  by  an 
early  settler.  The  stem  is  round,  made 
of  redwood,  and  a  stone  ring  surrounds 
the  bowl.  The  tobacco  would  of  neces 
sity  have  to  be  packed  tightly  when 
one  smoked  such  a  pipe,  unless,  as  has 
been  reported,  the  smoker  lay  upon 
his  back. 

Fig.  457  is  a  roughly  outlined  and 


FIG.  476  C.  (S.  1-2.)  This  beauti 
ful  little  pipe  is  of  a  type  occasion 
ally  found  in  Pennsylvania  and  the 


Carolinas.  It  may  not  be  prehis-     unfinished    effigy    pipe,    which    when 
toric.  At  any  rate,  it  is  an  inter-     complete  was  intended    to  represent 

the  head  of  some  animal.    In  this  we 
sylvania.  have  evidence  of  the  method  of  work 


70        THE  STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

on  the  part  of  the  maker.  Instead  of  the  hand-hammer  it  would 
appear  that  a  cutting-tool  had  been  used.  He  had  begun  to  rim 
out  the  bowl  on  the  top  of  the  head,  but  the  stem  hole  is  not  yet 
in  evidence. 

It  is  in  the  effigy  pipes  themselves  as  a  class  that  we  see  the  great 
est  skill  and  care  manifested  in  the  manufacture  of  these  strange 
objects.  This  does  not,  however,  mean  that  all  effigy  pipes  are 


FIG.  477.  (S.  i -i.)  Eagle  pipe.  Clarence  B.  Moore.  A  superb  pipe  of  limestone 
representing  an  eagle.  "This  pipe,  4.6  inches  in  length,  carved  with  great  spirit,  is  a 
worthy  exemplar  of  the  prehistoric  art  of  Moundville.  The  bird  is  represented  on  its 
back,  the  head  swung  around  to  one  side  with  the  beak  open  and  tongue  extended.  In 
cidentally,  it  may  be  said  that  the  'hump'  shown  on  the  tongue  by  the  native  artist, 
though  somewhat  exaggerated,  is  not  imaginary,  as  may  be  proved  upon  examination 
of  an  eagle.  It  may  be  that  this  pipe,  showing  as  it  does  the  eagle  lying  on  its  back,  its 
legs  and  claws  on  the  belly,  represents  the  dead  bird.  By  pulling  out  the  tongue  of  a  dead 
eagle  one  would  be  certain  to  notice  the  '  hump';  hence  the  examination  of  a  dead  bird 
would  have  sufficed  so  far  as  correct  rendering  on  the  pipe  was  concerned.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  'hump'  on  the  tongue  is  plainly  shown  on  pottery  from  Moundville,  where 
the  eagle's  head  is  erect  and  the  bird  is  evidently  represented  as  alive." 

models  of  the  carver's  art,  as  many  of  them  show  poor  workmanship. 
In  other  words,  the  art  in  pipes  is  no  exception  to  the  rule  of  art 
elsewhere.  There  were  those  who  understood  their  business  and 
produced  masterpieces,  and  there  were  those  who  produced  just 
the  opposite.  There  may  be  a  totally  different  method  of  treatment 
in  representing  the  same  creature,  as  for  instance  Figs.  468  and  470 
showing  the  Iroquois  treatment  of  human  and  bird  forms  in  life; 


GROUND   STONE --STONE   PIPES  71 

and  the  Southern  Mound-Builder,  Figs.  473,  474  A,  499,  illustrating 
birds  and  men.  The  Iroquois  and  the  Plains  tribes  made  pipes  more 
nearly  like  our  modern  pipes  of  to-day.  The  bowl  was  round  or 
angular,  and  the  stem  long  and  tapering,  or  angular.  Excellent 
examples  from  the  Buffalo  collection  are  shown  in  Fig.  465. 

The  Iroquois  pipes  and  pipes  characteristic  of  the  Plains,  pipes 
classified  by  Mr.  McGuire  and  Mr.  West  as  Micmacs,  and  other 
modern  pipes,  are  scattered  quite  generally  throughout  north, 
central,  and  eastern  United  States.  It  is  good  that  Mr.  McGuire 
has  given  us  so  careful  a  distribution  of  pipes  as  is  set  forth  in  his 
fifteen  divisions.  The  student  of  archaeology  must  distinguish  be 
tween  the  pipes  from  the  old  burial-places  and  those  that  are  appar 
ently  modern.  The  prehistoric  cultures  and  the  modern  cultures  of 


FIG.  477/1.  (S.  i-i.)  Eagle  pipe.  Clarence  B.  Moore.  " Several' experts  who  have 
charge  of  eagles  in  captivity  inform  us  that  under  certain  circumstances  the  'hump' 
on  the  tongue  is  visible  on  the  living  bird.  Possibly  the  aboriginal  artist  at  Mound ville 
was  familiar  with  the  characteristics  on  eagles  through  the  possession  there  of  captive 
birds  —  a  custom  observed  among  the  Zuni  of  New  Mexico  at  the  present  time. 

"Owing  to  slight  disintegration  of  the  stone  at  that  part  of  the  pipe  where  the  head  is, 
the  details  of  the  carving  are  somewhat  indistinct,  but  by  holding  the  pipe  in  a  suitable 
light  all  the  details  of  the  head  are  still  distinguishable.  A  wing  is  represented  on  each  side. 
The  legs,  beginning  at  the  tail,  which  extends  outward,  rise  upward  and  forward,  the  feet 
and  talons  resting  on  the  belly  and  embracing  the  orifice  of  the  bowl.  The  opening  for  the 
stem  is  immediately  above  the  tail."  ' 

'  Moundville  Revisited,  pp.  384-390. 


72        THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  478.  (S.  i-i.)  Handled  pipe.  This  figure  "represents  one  of  the  oldest  handled 
pipes  that  has  come  under  the  writer's  observation.  This  interesting  specimen  was  taken 
from  a  burial-mound,  on  the  Nicholai  farm,  Big  Bend,  Waukesha  County,  Wisconsin,  in 
July,  1902,  by  Mr.  La  Fayette  Ellerson.  With  it  was  found  a  curved-base  mound  pipe." 
From  the  collection  of  G.  A.  West,  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin. 


FIG.  478.4.  (S.  1-2.)  Handled  pipe.  "Found  by  Mr.  O.  S.  Ludington,  near  Prairie 
du  Chien,  of  red  sandstone,  formed,  mainly  by  the  pecking  process,  into  the  shape  of  a 
fish,  and  is  5^  inches  long,  2^/2  inches  wide,  and  i  inch  thick.  Its  bowl  cavity  is  three 
fourths  of  an  inch  across,  the  stem  hole  nearly  as  large,  and  both  are  cone-shaped,  having 
been  made  with  a  stone  drill.  This  specimen  is  not  worked  down  smooth,  nor  does  it  ex 
hibit  file  marks."  From  the  collection  of  G.  A.  West,  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin. 


GROUND   STONE  — STONE   PIPES 


73 


FIG.  479.    (S.    1-3.)    Six  interesting  effigy  pipes  from   the  collection  of   Bennett   H. 
Young,  Louisville,  Kentucky. 


74 


THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  479  A.  Turtle  pipe.  Milwaukee  Museum  collection.  This  fig 
ure  "is  of  grayish-brown  steatite,  3J4  inches  long,  2^  inches  in  its 
greatest  width,  and  with  a  finely  carved  upper  surface  representing  a 
turtle.  The  bowl  is  in  the  centre  of  the  turtle's  back,  the  stem  hole 
is  small,  and  was  doubtless  used  without  the  addition  of  a  detachable 
mouthpiece.  The  lower  part  of  the  body  is  flat,  with  no  attempt  to 
form  either  legs  or  tail."  This  specimen  was  discovered  within  the 
southern  limits  of  the  city  of  Milwaukee,  and  is  believed  to  be  one  of 
two  ceremonial  pipes  of  turtle-form,  so  far  found  in  Wisconsin.  "The 
turtle  was  an  emblem  of  the  Sioux,  and  from  the  frequent  occurrence 
of  its  shell  in  graves  must  have  been  held  in  high  esteem  by  the  In 
dians;  yet  representations  of  it  in  stone  are  exceedingly  rare." 


FIG.  480.  (S.  I -I.)  Effigy  pipe,  Hopewell  Group. 


GROUND   STONE -STONE   PIPES 


75 


FIG.  481.  (S.  i-i.)  Turtle  pipe  found  near  Burnett,  Dodge  County,  Wisconsin. 
Milwaukee  Public  Museum  collection. 


76        THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  481  A.  (S.  i -i.)  Another  view  of  Fig.  481. 


GROUND   STONE  — STONE   PIPES  77 

our  American  aborigines  here  in  the  United  States  may  be  compared 
with  those  of  Europe;  where  on  one 
site  we  might  find  Roman  weapons  or 
implements,  those  of  early  Germanic 
tribes  associated  with  the  Roman, 
and  beneath  all  of  these,  those  of 
the  stone-age  type.  But  if  the  soil 
had  been  disturbed,  through  digging 
on  the  part  of  people  subsequent  to 
these  epochs,  stone-age  objects,  to 
gether  with  those  of  Roman  and 
Germanic  occupations,  might  be 
found  associated  together.  It  fol 
lows,  therefore,  that  here  in  Amer 
ica,  when  we  find  modern  catlinite 
pipes  and  rectangular  stone  pipes  on 
a  village-site  or  beneath  the  sur 
face,  these  may  represent  different 
epochs  or  cultures.  These  cultures 
may  or  may  not  be  separated  by 
hundreds  of  years. 

There  are  many  complications  to 
be  taken  into  consideration,  in  our 
study  of  the  distribution  of  pipes.  As 
has  been  pointed  out,  rude  pipes  are 
quite  as  likely  to  have  been  made 
by  modern  Indians  as  by  prehistoric 
people. 

It  does  not  follow,  because  the 
type  of  pipes  recognized  as  Iro- 
quoian  in  character  is  widespread 
north  of  the  Ohio  Valley  and  Cana 
da,  that  all  pipes  in  that  region  \vere 
made  by  the  tribes  of  this  stock. 

The  Iroquois  overran  the  entire 
territory  north  of  the  Ohio  and  east 
of  the  Scioto.  We  know7  that  they 
overwhelmed  the  Eries,  Hurons,  and 
others,  whose  art  was  quite  differ 
ent. 


78        THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  483.   (S.  i-i.) 

From  ossuary  in  the  Township  of 
Manvers,  County  of  Durham,  Ontario, 
Canada. 

Collection  of  J.  G.  Ogle  D'Olier, 
Rochester,  New  York. 


FIG.  484.   (S.  i-i.) 

From  ossuary  in  the  Township  of 
Manvers,  County  of  Durham,  Ontario, 
Canada. 

Collection  of  J.  G.  Ogle  D'Olier, 
Rochester,  New  York. 


GROUND   STONE  — STONE   PIPES 


79 


FIG.  485.  (S.  2-3.)  Beautiful  effigy  pipe  of  a  frog  found  in 
a  grave  at  Waynesville,  Ohio,  overlooking  the  Miami  River. 
Secured  by  W.  K.  Moorehead,  1889.  Now  in  the  Ohio  State 
University  Museum,  Columbus. 

As  I  have  remarked,  these  Iroquoian  pipes  are  easily  distinguished 
from  other  forms;  they  are  not  found  in  the  ancient  burial-places 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  The  beautiful  mound  and  grave  pipes 
from  the  Ohio  Valley,  the  middle  South,  and  the  far  South,  shown 
in  Figs.  474,  477  A,  485  to  491,  494,  496,  and  499,  are  not  only 
of  ancient  lineage,  but  show  no  mark  of  steel 
tools,  and  do  not  appear  to  have  been  in 
spired  by  European  civilization.  On  the 
other  hand,  many  of  the  pipes  referred  to  do 
appear  to  have  been  suggested  by  a  know 
ledge  of  European  art.  Some  of  the  best 
effigy  pipes,  the  monitor  or  platform  pipes, 
were  not  made  of  stone,  but  of  a  fine  grade 
of  fire-clay.  There  are  also  effigies  in  pipes  of 
terra-cotta.  In  answering  a  letter  request 
ing  information,  Professor  W.  C.  Mills,  un 
der  date  of  April  27,  1910,  said  concerning 
the  pipes  in  his  collection:  "Of  the  plat 
form  pipes,  ten  are  fire-clay,  of  the  effigy 
pipes,  fifteen  are  fire-clay,  and  of  the  tub- 
ular  pipes,  twenty  are  fire-clay.  The  fire- 
clay  pipes  were  never  burned,  but  were  Ohi 


FIG.  486.  (S.  1-2.)  Frog  pipe. 


8o        THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 

cut  from  original  pieces  of  clay.   Twenty  of  the  miscellaneous  pipes 
are  made  of  potter's  clay." 

The  bird  is  much  in  evidence  as  a  prehistoric  sculpture.  In  fact, 
there  are  more  bird-pipes  than  any  other  life-form.  This  at  once 
suggests  the  famous  4<  Thunder  Bird,"  so  famous  in  Indian  mytho 
logy  in  America.  Yet  if  it  is  true  that  these  effigies  are  not  totemic, 


FIG.  487.  (S.  2-3.)  An  interesting  human  effigy  found 
in  northern  Ohio,  now  in  the  collection  of  the  Ohio 
State  University,  Columbus. 

as  relating  to  tribes,  but  stand  for  "Thunder  Birds,"  it  is  curious 
that  so  many  different  kinds  of  birds  should  have  been  represented. 
There  are  the  hawk,  eagle,  crow,  woodcock,  duck,  woodpecker,  paro 
quet,  and  others.  Examine  Fig.  474^4.  It  is  one  of  the  best  sculp 
tures  presented  in  this  chapter.  Compare  this  beautiful  carving  with 
the  following  bird-pipes,  Figs.  470,  471,  473,  476,  477,  480,  where 
possible  readers  are  advised  to  visit  some  public  museum  or  consult 
a  library  and  study  the  illustrations  of  bird-pipes.  The  range  is 
considerable.  Even  in  so  brief  space  as  is  afforded  in  this  chapter, 
it  will  be  observed  that  it  was  the  intention  of  the  ancient  people 
to  represent  not  one  kind  of  bird  but  many.  The  statement  fre 
quently  made,  that  it  is  impossible  in  some  instances  to  determine 
just  what  species  of  bird  was  intended,  is  true.  But  we  have  no 
difficulty  in  distinguishing  between  the  duck,  the  eagle,  the  owl, 
or  the  crow,  although  the  different  kinds  of  ducks,  or  of  hawks, 
might  not  be  differentiated  accurately. 


GROUND  STONE  — STONE   PIPES 


81 


FIG.  488.  (S.  i-i.)  Effigy  pipe  of  limestone.  A  remarkable  effigy  pipe  found  by  Mr. 
Moore  in  one  of  the  mounds  at  Moundville,  Alabama.  This  group  of  mounds  has  furnished 
some  remarkable  specimens  in  stone  and  clay. 

Air.  West  says  of  the  so-called  handled  pipes:  - 

"  In  this  class  the  author  has  placed  a  small  number  of  very  inter 
esting  pipes  which  are  provided  with  an  elongated  base  or  handle, 
by  which  they  were  held  or  supported ;  and  in  most  examples  with 
a  short  mouthpiece  also.  Some  are  without  the  latter  feature,  and 
were  probably  furnished  with  a  short  stem  of  wood  or  bone.  They 
differ  considerably  as  to  general  shape  and  manner  of  ornamenta 
tion.  A  few  have  the  bowls  artistically  carved  to  represent  the  head 
of  a  human  being,  a  fish,  or  an  animal. 

"A  small  number  of  similar  pipes  have  been  described  from  other 
sections  of  the  United  States.  Twenty-two  examples  have  been 


82        THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  489.  (S.  2-3.)  These  pipes  were  found  together  in  a  small  mound,  a  short  distance 
south  of  St.  Louis,  Missouri.   Collection  of  H.  M.  Braun,  East  St.  Louis,  Illinois. 

found  in  Wisconsin,  no  two  of  which  are  of  exactly  the  same  pattern. 
No  theory  of  their  authorship  among  the  Wisconsin  or  other  Indians 
has  as  yet  been  advanced.  Even  though  originally  limited  to  one 
tribe,  so  convenient  a  form  of  pipe  is  sure  to  have  been  copied  by 
individuals  belonging  to  others. 

"Authorities  who  have  written  on  the  subject,  seem  to  regard  this 
type  of  pipe  as  modern.  Some  of  the  Wisconsin  finds  contain  no 
marks  of  metal  tools,  are  unpolished,  and  have  all  indications  of 
being  prehistoric,  while  others  are  new  in  appearance,  finely  polished 
and  show  evidence  of  the  use  of  metal  tools  in  their  manu 
facture."1 


FIG.  490.  (S.  2-3.)  Human  effigy  pipe,  from  a  grave  in  the 
Willis  Cemetery,  Hopkinsville,  Kentucky.  Phillips  Academy 
collection. 

i  "  The  Aboriginal  Pipes  of  Wisconsin,"  Wisconsin  Archeologist,  vol.  iv,  nos.  3  and  4, 
125. 


GROUND   STONE --STONE    PIPES 


s  ^  _ 


I  8  * 


. 

cs 


/—  ^   So  o 

«0  u,    2  '=" 

Si! 


a  c  = 

«  o  i>  -- 

r,  en  ?*> 

fe  bfl  o  ^ 


84        THE   STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  492.  (S.  4-5.)  Collection  of  W.  C.  Herriman,  Toronto, 
Ontario,  Canada. 

Figs.  492  and  493  present  two  views  of  a  pipe  of  the  ordinary 
clay  material.  The  bowl  is  behind  the  head,  passing  down  the 
region  of  the  back.  The  unique  feature  of  this  pipe  is  that  when 
shaken  it  gives  evidence  of  a  hollow  sound  in  the  head  with  several 
small,  hard  particles  which  distinctly  rattle.  These  have  never 
been  investigated  and  their  nature  is  not  known. 


GROUND   STONE  — STONE   PIPES  85 

Fig.  480  is  a  remarkable  carving  in  graphite  slate.  This  was  found 
by  me  on  the  altar  of  the  effigy  mound,  Hopewell  Group,  Ross 
County,  Ohio,  during  the  course  of  explorations,  August  1901- 
March  1902.  The  pipe  represents  a  woodcock  resting  on  the  back 
of  a  grotesque  fish.  The  bird  is  true  to  life,  the  fish  is  not.  No  pipe 
found  by  Squier  and  Davis  in  the  famous  Mound  City  Group  ex 
ceeded  this  in  its  beautiful  artistic  lines  and  skill  evinced  in  manu 
facture.  With  this  pipe  were  thousands  of  pearl  beads,  copper 


FIG.  493.   (S.  4-5.)  Side  view  of  Fig.  492. 


FIG.  494.  (S.  about  2-7.)  Collection  of  H.  M.  Whelpley,  St.  Louis,  Mo.  Found  near 
Muskogee,  Ind.  Ter.  Color,  terra-cotta;  size,  eight  and  one  half  inches  high  by  five 
and  one  half  inches  anterio-posterior,  by  four  and  one  eighth  inches  wide;  weight,  five 
pounds.  The  discoidal  in  the  right  hand  measures  one  and  three  fourths  by  five  eighths 
inches.  Each  of  the  two  sticks  in  the  left  hand  are  four  and  one  eighth  inches  long.  Ear 
rings,  one  by  three  eighths  inch;  bead  under  chin,  three  fourths  by  three  eighths  inch. 


GROUND   STONE  — STONE   PIPES 


"m 


FIG.  495.  (S.  1-6.)  Collection  of  W.  A.  Holmes,  Chicago,  Illinois. 

ear  ornaments,  obsidian  blades,  and  other  remarkable  objects,  all 
of  which  are  foreign  to  Ohio.  The  pipe,  together  with  the  other 
objects,  is  exhibited  in  the  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
Chicago. 

In  Figs.  481  and  481  A,  I  present  front  and  rear  views  of  an 
effigy  pipe  from  Wisconsin,  now  in  the  Milwaukee  Public  Mu 
seum.  This  is  one  of  the  finest  examples  of  mound  pipe  found  in 


88 


THE   STONE   AGE   IN    NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  496.   (S.  1-2.)   Collection  of  Leslie  W.  Hills,  Fort  Wayne,  Indiana.     The  effigy  to 
the  left  is  a  remarkable  and  interesting  pipe,  of  hard  black  stone,  and  was  found  in  Ohio. 

the  North.  An  inspection  of  the  two  figures  will  acquaint  readers 
with  the  fact  that  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  pipe  represent  two 
kinds  of  reptilia.  Prof.  S.  A.  Barrett,  who  kindly  furnished  this  and 
some  other  photographs  for  me,  explains  this  peculiarity  as  follows: 
"In  sending  you  the  information  concerning  specimens,  there  is 
one  point  that  I  overlooked,  and  that  is  the  difference  between 
the  carapace  and  the  plastron  of  the  turtle  pipe.  It  is  an  inter 
esting  fact  that  the  carapace  of  this  specimen  is  that  of  a  terra 
pin,  while  the  plastron  is  carved  after  the  fashion  of  the  snapping 
turtle." 


GROUND   STONE  —  STONE   PIPES  89 

I  have  referred  in  a  number  of  places  to  smoking  as  a  ceremony. 
In  addition  to  being  a  rite,  it  was  always  practiced  for  medicinal 
purposes.  Not  only  did  the  Indians  in  ancient  times  inhale  fumes 
in  order  to  alleviate  distress,  but  the  white  people  did  likewise. 
Mr.  McGuire,  in  his  work  which  I  have  previously  quoted,  makes 
this  perfectly  clear  and  cites  numerous  instances  as  to  the  supposed 


FIG.  497.  (S.  i -i.)  Portrait  pipe.  Collection  of  G.  A.  West, 
Milwaukee,  Wisconsin.  This  figure  was  dug  from  a  grave  at 
East  Jacksonport,  Door  County,  Wisconsin,  over  which  was  an 
old  pine  stump  30  inches  in  diameter,  by  Mr.  L.  K.  Erkskin,  from 
whom  it  was  secured  by  Mr.  Wr.  H.  Elkey,  for  Mr.  G.  A.  West. 
This  pipe  is  of  compact  flinty  limestone  and  most  skillfully 
carved  into  a  resemblance  of  the  head  and  face  of  a  frowning 
Indian.  Both  bowl  and  stem  excavations  are  conical  in  shape,  and 
were  evidently  made  with  stone  drills. 

curative  property  of  tobacco.    I  quote  one  of  his  paragraphs  l  con 
cerning  the  truly  remarkable  material  gathered  by  Mr.  Bragg:  — 
"  Bragg's  collection  of  pipes,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  made 
from  all  parts  of  the  world,    and  his  books  relating  to  tobacco,  the 

1  Report  of  the  United  States  National  Museum,  1897,  p.  445. 


FIG.  498.  (S.  1-2.)  Portrait  pipe.  Described  by  G.  A.  West,  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin. 
This  figure  "is  of  dark  sandstone,  10  inches  long,  with  a  portion  of  its  bowl  broken  away. 
This  remarkable  pipe  was  found  many  years  ago  near  Fort  Atkinson,  Jefferson  County, 
Wisconsin,  and  is  now  in  a  private  collection  in  the  State  of  New  Hampshire.  It  is  a  calu 
met  but  not  of  the  Siouan  type.  The  writer  is  informed  that  this  specimen  is  unpolished, 
but  has  the  appearance  of  great  age,  contains  no  metal  tool-marks,  and  showrs  much  use." 


FIG.  499.  (S.  i-i.J  Collection  of  Professor  \V.  C.  Mills,  Columbus,  Ohio. 


92        THE   STONE   AGE    IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

former  consisting  of  13,000  specimens  and  the  latter  of  500  volumes, 
was  as  rich  as  it  was  curious,  and  has  probably  never  been  equaled. 
The  medicinal  and  imaginary  properties  attaching  to  tobacco  have 
been  marked  among  the  American  Indians  to  no  greater  extent 
than  in  Europe.  Rembert  Dodoens  in  1578  said  'the  perfume  of 
dryed  leaves,  he  sayd  he  layde  upon  quick  coles  taken  in  the  mouth 
through  the  pipe  of  a  funnel  or  tunnel,  helpeth  such  as  are  troubled 
with  shortness  of  winde  and  fetch  their  breath  thicke  and  often.'  "  l 

In  1901  Professor  W.  C.  Mills  explored  the  Adena  Mound  near 
Chillicothe  for  the  Ohio  State  Archaeological  and  Historical  Society. 
One  of  the  skeletons,  aside  from  having  arrow-heads,  knives,  pearl 
and  bone  beads  and  other  relics,  had  near  the  left  hand  the  beauti 
ful  effigy  pipe  shown  in  Fig.  499.  I  present  front  and  side  views  of 
this  pipe,  and  quote  from  Professor  Mills's  Report  as  follows  :  — 

"This  pipe  is  eight  inches  in  length,  and  is  composed  of  clay, 
resembling  the  fire-clay  found  in  Scioto  County,  which  is  further 
south  but  in  the  same  valley.  The  pipe  is  tubular  in  form,  the  hole 
extending  the  entire  length  of  the  body ;  the  large  opening  is  between 
the  feet,  having  a  hole  five  eighths  inch  in  diameter.  Within  an 
inch  of  the  top  of  the  head  it  begins  to  narrow  down  to  a  very  small 
aperture  one  eighth  inch  in  diameter.  The  mouthpiece  formed  a 
part  of  the  head-dress  of  the  image.  The  front  part  of  the  pipe  is  of 
a  light  gray  in  color  while  the  back  part  is  of  a  brick  red.  The  speci 
men  is  covered  with  a  deposit  of  iron  ore;  this  appears  in  small 
blotches  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  specimen,  the  one  side  of  the 
face  and  body  being  more  densely  covered  with  it  than  the  other 
parts  of  the  pipe. 

'The  effigy  represents  the  human  form  in  the  nude  state  with  the 
exception  of  the  covering  around  the  loins ;  this  covering  extends 
round  the  body  and  is  tied  in  the  back;  the  ends  of  the  covering 
hang  down  and  serve  as  ornaments.  On  the  front  of  this  covering 
is  a  serpentine  or  scroll-like  ornamentation.  From  the  lobe  of  each 
ear  is  hung  an  ear  ornament  which  is  quite  large  in  proportion  to 
the  ear,  and  resembles  very  much  the  button-shaped  copper  orna 
ments  which  are  so  frequently  found  in  the  mounds  of  the  Scioto 
Valley." 

1  E.  A.  Barber,  The  Antiquity  of  the  Tobacco  Pipe  in  Europe,  quoting  Rembert  Dodoens 
on  the  virtues  of  colefoot  in  the  "  historic  of  plantes,"  American  Antiquarian,  n,  p.  6. 


Fig.  500.  (S.  i-i.) 

Frog  pipe,  from  Tennessee,  and  rectangular  pipe,  from 
Georgia.  Both  of  fine  sandstone.  From  the  collection  of 
F.  P.  Graves,  Doe  Run,  Saint  Francois  County,  Missouri. 


CHAPTER   XXVII 

GROUND    STONE 
MORTARS    AND   PESTLES 

CLASSIFICATION  of  mortars  and  pestles. 

Mortars. 

(a)  Oval  or  circular.    (Figs.  501-02.) 

(b)  Angular  or  squared  (metates).    (Figs.  415-16.) 

(c)  Pointed.    (Fig.  511,  top  row.) 
Pestles. 

(a)  Elongated,  plain.    (Fig.  517.) 

(b)  Elongated,  ridged  or  ornamented.    (Figs.  513-14.) 

(c)  Bell-shaped.    (Fig.  503.) 

(d)  With  flat  surfaces  (mano  stones).    (Fig.  515.) 

There  grew  in  North  America,  at  the  time  of  its  discovery  by 
Columbus,  a  profusion  of  seeds,  nuts,  and  roots  of  various  kinds, 
developing  according  to  climate  from  northern  Canada  to  south 
ern  Arizona.  Man  found  these  a  valuable  addition  to  his  food-sup 
ply,  and  he  made  use  of  many  of  them  that  we  of  to-day  should 
consider  unpalatable.  He  procured  shell-fish  of  various  kinds  both 
salt  and  fresh  water;  he  knew  the  properties  of  many  roots,  bulbs, 
barks,  and  other  plants.  With  the  exception  of  such  molluscs  as  he 
ate,  and  his  fresh  meat,  the  greater  bulk  of  his  food-supply  was  in 
the  form  of  kernels,  or  grains,  or  bulbs,  or  nuts,  which  must  needs 
be  reduced  to  meal,  or  stripped  of  husks,  or  cracked  and  broken. 
To  convert  the  raw  food  into  palatable  flour,  he  used  both  wooden 
and  stone  pestles  in  flat,  oval,  or  round  mortars,  the  form  varying 
in  different  parts  of  the  country. 

In  1895,  the  American  Antiquarian  Society  published  "The  Food 
of  Certain  American  Indians  and  Their  Method  of  Preparing  It,"  by 
Professor  Lucien  Carr.  Mr.  Carr  was  long  Assistant  Curator  of  the 
Peabody  Museum  at  Cambridge,  and  his  research  in  to  historic  Indian 
affairs  is  well  known.  I  quote  a  fewr  paragraphs  from  Mr.  Carr:  — 

"Speaking  in  a  general  w^ay,  the  old  chronicler  wras  not  far  wrong 
when  he  told  us  that  the  Indian  'lived  on  what  he  got  by  hunting, 


96 


THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


fishing,  and  cultivating  the  soil/  Unquestionably,  he  derived  the 
bulk  of  his  food  from  these  sources,  though  there  were  times,  and 
unfortunately  they  were  somewhat  frequent,  when  he  was  glad  to  fill 
out  his  bill  of  fare  with  the  fruits,  nuts,  and  edible  roots  and  grasses 
with  which  a  bountiful  Nature  supplied  him.  Dividing  all  these 
different  articles  according  to  their  nature  and  origin,  and  beginning 


FIG.  501.    (S.  1-8.)  From  the  collection  of  Solon  McCoy,  Mountain  Home,  Idaho. 

with  those  the  production  of  which  is  believed  to  indicate  racial 
progress,  we  find  that  corn,  beans,  and  pumpkins  were  cultivated 
wherever,  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States,  they  could  be 
grown  to  advantage.  Of  these  corn  was  by  far  the  most  important; 
and  as  it  seems  to  have  been  the  main  dependence  of  all  the  tribes 
that  lived  south  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  east  of  the  tier  of  states 
that  line  the  west  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  and  as  the  manner  of 
cultivating  it  and  the  different  ways  of  cooking  it  were  practically 
the  same  everywhere  and  at  all  times,  we  shall  confine  our  remarks 
to  it  and  to  the  Indians  living  within  these  limits,  merely  premising 


MORTARS   AND    PESTLES 


97 


as 


that  much  of  what  is  said  about  it  will  apply  to  'its  sisters, 
beans  and  squashes  were  lovingly  termed  by  the  Iroquois. 

"And  here,  at  the  outset  of  our  investigation,  we  are  met  by  the 
fact  that  modern  research  has  failed  to  throw  a  positive  light  upon 
the  question  of  its  origin.  That  it  was  indigenous  to  America  is 
generally  believed,  and  so,  also,  the  statement  that  it  was  first  culti- 


FIG.  502.    (S.  1-3.)  Ordinary  mortar.   Collection  of  Frank  L.  Grove,  Delaware,  Ohio. 

vated  at  some  point  between  the  tropics  is  accepted.  Beyond  this 
we  have  not  been  able  to  go;  and  without  entering  into  a  discussion 
of  the  subject,  it  is  probably  safe  to  assume  that  this  is  as  near  the 
truth  as  we  can  hope  to  get.  However,  be  this  as  it  may,  there  seems 
to  be  no  doubt  that  its  domestication  took  place  ages  ago,  for  in  no 
other  way  is  it  thought  possible  to  account  for  the  vast  extent  of 
country  over  which  its  use  had  spread,  and  for  the  number  of  vari 
eties  to  which  it  had  given  rise.  Take  our  own  country,  for  example, 
and  when  the  whites  first  landed  here,  there  were  found  growing, 
within  certain  limited  areas,  a  number  of  different  kinds,  distin- 


98        THE   STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  503.  (S.  1-4.)  Pestles,  Class  "  C."   Collection  of  J.  A.  Rayner,  Piqua,  Ohio. 


MORTARS   AND    PESTLES 


99 


guished  one  from  another,  by  the  length  of  time  they  took  to  ripen, 
by  the  size  of  the  ear,  by  the  shape  and  hard 
ness  of  the  grain,  and  by  the  color,  though  this 
is  said  to  be  accidental. 

"In  addition  to  these,  which  were  known  to 
the  whites  as  hominy  corn,  bread  corn,  and  six- 
weeks  corn,  there  was  still  another  sort,  called 
by  the  French  ble  fleuri,  and  by  ourselves  pop 
corn,  of  which  the  Indians  were  very  fond,  and 
which  they  served  up  to  those  of  their  guests 
whom  they  wished  to  honor.  With  so  many 
kinds,  and  planting  them  at  different  times 
during  the  spring  and  early  summer,  they  not 
only  had  successive  crops,  which  they  ate  green 
as  long  as  the  season  lasted,  but  they  also  raised 
enough  for  wrinter  use,  and,  not  unfrequently, 
had  some  to  spare  to  their  needy  neighbors, 
white  as  well  as  red.  Indeed,  their  pedlers  made 
long  trips  for  the  purpose  of  exchanging  their 
surplus  corn  for  skins  and  anything  else  that 
they  needed ;  and  but  for  the  supplies  wrhich  the 
Pilgrim  fathers,  and  \ve  may  add  the  settlers 
at  Jamestown  and  New  Orleans,  'obtained 
from  the  Indians  willingly  or  through  force/ 
it  is  probable,  as  a  recent  writer  suggests, '  that 
there  would  have  been  but  few  if  any  of  their 
descendants  left  to  write  their  histories  and 
sing  their  praises.' ' 

The  cultivation  of  corn  in  the  United  States 
was  widespread.  De  Soto,  Coronado,  and  other 
early  explorers  in  their  wanderings,  as  well  as 
our  military  expeditions  of  the  French  and  In 
dian  War,  the  wars  of  the  Revolution  and 
of  1812,  found  large  corn-fields  wrherever  the 
Indian  population  was  thickest. 

In  addition  to  corn,  which  is  placed  first, 
the  Indians  gathered  wild  rice  in  the  North 

and  koonti  and  tuckahoe  in  the  South.    Of 

,                          .      .  FIG.  504.  (S.  1-5.)  Collcc- 

these  roots,   it   is   stated:      It  grew   like  a  tion  of  W.  A.  Holmes,  Chi- 

flagge,  in  the  marshes,  and  when  made  into  cag°.  Illinois. 


ioo      THE   STONE   AGE    IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

bread  had  the  'taste  of  potatoes."  There  were  also  great  stores 
of  dried  meat  and  fish  put  up  in  every  village,  quantities  of  maple 
sugar,  squashes,  beans,  pumpkins,  and  an  endless  variety  of  roots 
and  nuts. 

We  now  know  that  there  are  seventeen  separate  foods  for  which 
civilization  is  indebted  to  the  Indian. 

What  we  should  consider  the  simplest  form  of  mortar  is  a  question. 
Of  course,  the  mortar,  rather  than  the  pestle,  is  the  essential  thing. 
Man  must  have  something  in  which  to  grind  or  crush  his  food,  and 
it  did  not  matter  to  him  whether  the  receptacle  was  wood,  stone,  or 


FIG.  504.4.  (S.  1-4.)  From  the   collection  of   B.  H.  Young,  Louisville,  Kentucky.    Rare 
forms  of  pestles  from  the  Cumberland  and  Tennessee  valleys. 

leather  so  long  as  it  served  the  purpose,  and  it  was  of  no  consequence 
to  him  whether  his  pestle  was  a  round  stone,  an  oval,  an  elongated 
pestle  or  bell-shaped,  or  a  flat  mano  stone.  What  he  wished  to 
accomplish,  the  reduction  of  grains  or  nuts  or  chunks  of  dried  beef 
to  flour,  was  of  primary  importance,  and  the  agencies  employed  to 
obtain  this  result  were  secondary.  Of  course,  he  may  have  used 
elaborately  ornamented  and  artistically  worked  pestles  and  mortars 


MORTARS   AND   PESTLES 


101 


FIG.  505.   (S.  1-4.)  Cast  of  a  steatite  bowl.  Found  near  Lynn.  Collec 
tion  of  Salem  Museum,  Salem,  Massachusetts. 


102      THE   STONE   AGE    IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

in  the  preparation  of  sacred  meal ;  as  to  that  I  do  not  know.    What 
I  am  talking  about  now  is  the  common  form  of  mortar  and  pestle. 

Wooden  mortars,  as  well  as  wooden  bowls,  existed  in  many  por 
tions  of  the  country.  There  are  abundant  historical  references  to 
these,  and  readers  are  referred  to  the  Bibliography  in  this  instance 
as  in  others.  The  natives  smoothed  the  surface  of  a  fallen  tree- trunk, 
or  the  top  of  a  stump,  and,  by  constant  friction  of  either  stone  or 
wooden  pestle,  soon  wore  out  a  mortar  cavity.  They  also  selected 
glacial  boulders,  convenient  points  of  bluffs,  ledges,  etc.,  in  various 
parts  of  the  country,  and  worked  out  stationary  mortars.  These 
have  been  found  in  at  least  a  hundred  places  in  the  United  States. 
Aside  from  the  stationary  mortars,  there  were  many  small  flat 
stones,  and  some  large  stones  of  convenient  size  on  which  grinding 
is  evident  for  a  considerable  length  of  time,  and  as  a  result  a  de 
pression  varying  from  a  few  inches  to  a  foot  or  more  in  depth  occurs. 

Paint  stones  are  simply  small  mortars.  Sometimes  they  are 
highly  polished  and  well  worked  out,  but  usually  they  are  rude 
and  may  be  classed  as  small  mortars,  as  they  are  receptacles  for 
grinding.  Fig.  501,  from  the  collection  of  Mr.  Solon  McCoy  of 
Mountain  Home,  Idaho,  illustrates  seven  short  pestles  and  seven 
small  mortars,  size  one  eighth,  such  as  are  common  in  the  South 
west  and  not  infrequent  in  most  portions  of  the  East.  This  illustra 
tion  may  stand  as  typical  for  all  such  forms  in  the  United  States. 
The  pestles  used  in  them  were  more  properly  rubbing-stones;  the 
end  is  slightly  flattened,  more  often  they  are  round  at  either  end. 
Great  numbers  of  short  oval  pestles  occur  in  the  New  England 
States,  and  the  South.  Fig.  504,  from  Mr.  Holmes's  collection,  illus 
trates  three  stone  pestles;  the  one  to  the  left  may  have  come  from 
any  one  of  a  dozen  states,  as  the  form  is  the  same  every  where ;  to 
the  right,  the  typical  bell-shaped  pestles  of  the  Ohio  Valley.  In  the 
centre,  the  pestle  is  bell-shaped,  short,  and  has  been  highly  polished, 
and  there  is  a  prominent  depression  in  the  centre. 

Fig.  503,  from  the  collection  of  Mr.  J.  A.  Rayner,  pictures  fifteen 
pestles;  all  save  four  of  the  bell-shaped  variety.  The  one  at  the  top, 
the  centre,  is  an  ordinary  cone,  to  the  right  of  that,  a  pestle  with 
twro  grinding  surfaces,  one  at  either  end,  which  is  rare.  In  the  centre 
are  two  long,  slightly  curved  objects  which  may  be  pestles  or  rollers 
used  in  preparing  clay  for  the  making  of  pottery.  The  variation 
in  the  bell  pestle  is  from  an  ordinary  plain  form  to  that  having  a 
narrow  top  and  an  unusually  broad,  flat  base.  The  pestles  shown 


MORTARS   AND    PESTLES 


103 


FIG.  506.   (S.  1-4.)  Soapstone  dish.  From  the  Peabody 
Museum  collection,  Salem,  Massachusetts. 

at  the  right  in  Fig.  514  are  highly  specialized  forms  from  the  North 
west.  There  are  similar  types  in  the  Ohio  Valley,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
504^4,  Colonel  Young's  collection.  But  as  a  rule  the  natives  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley  paid  little  attention  to  artistic  development  of 
domestic  tools,  such  as  pestles  and  mortars.  Fig.  502  is  the  ordin 
ary  large  stone  mortar  common  in  the  eastern  United  States.  It 
ranges  from  a  small  paint-cup  in  which  a  muller  no  larger  than  one's 
thumb  was  worked,  to  stationary  mortars  in  glacial  boulders,  so 
large  that  they  cannot  be  moved.  Fig.  507  presents  three  mortars 
of  lava,  and  some  flat  mortars  of  trap  rock.  These  are  from  Mr.  G.  B. 
Abbott's  collection,  Corning,  California.  The  stones  used  on  these 
are  flat,  or  oval  water- worn  stones  and  not  finished,  like  mano  stones 
common  to  the  Cliff-Dweller  country. 


FIG.  507.  (S.  1-9.)  From  the  collection  of  G.  B.  Abbott,  Corning.  California. 


104      THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 

In  the  East  and  the  South  we  have  steatite  or  soapstone  mortars, 
cooking-pots,  dishes,  bowls,  and  sometimes  dippers.  Most  of  the 
larger  museums  have  examples  of  these  and  particularly  in  highly 
finished  stone  dishes.  Fig.  505  is  a  large,  thin  stone  dish  from  the 
Peabody  Museum,  Salem,  which  was  found  near  Lynn.  Fig.  508 
presents  four  soapstone  dishes,  two  of  them  dipper-like  in  form. 


FIG.  508.  (S.  about  1-5.)   Soapstone  bowls.    Collection  of  Peabody 
Museum,  Cambridge,  Massachusetts. 

The  three  upper  ones  are  finished  and  polished,  while  the  lower  speci 
men  has  been  pecked  into  shape  but  not  polished. 

The  quarries  from  which  these  dishes  are  obtained  are  found  in 
New  England,  in  the  Potomac  region,  and  in  the  South.  Professor 
Holmes  made  them  the  subject  of  study.  It  seems  that  the  natives 
worked  around  the  mass  they  wished  to  remove  and  shaped  it  in 
situ,  cutting  a  deep  trench  entirely  around  it,  and  when  the  dish 
had  been  brought  into  high  relief,  they  cut  away  the  narrow  base 
and  removed  it.  Numbers  of  unfinished  dishes  in  position  in  the 
original  ledge  have  been  reported. 

Widespread  as  was  the  use  of  steatite  in  the  East  for  mortars  and 
dishes  and  of  harder  materials  for  mortars  in  which  heavy  grinding 


MORTARS   AND    PESTLES 


105 


io6      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

was  to  be  done,  it  is  in  the  Southwest,  California,  and  the  Rocky 
Mountains  where  more  millstones  are  found  than  elsewhere  in  the 
United  States.  The  Southwestern  metate  (see  Fig.  515)  is  well 
known  to  students  of  archaeology.  All  the  museums  have  on  ex 
hibition  hundreds  of  these,  and  we  have  in  our  museum  at  Andover, 
a  hundred  or  more  of  them.  They  vary  from  small  slabs,  presenting 
a  flat  surface,  to  deeply  worn  rectangular  and  square  specimens, 
some  of  which  are  two  feet  in  breadth  and  will  weigh  a  hundred 
pounds.  These  were  in  common  use  about  the  pueblos  and  cliff- 
houses.  In  our  museum  and  elsewhere  there  are  metates  that  have 
seen  service  for  so  many  years  that  they  are  worn  entirely  through. 

On  these  metates  a  flat  stone,  known  as  a  mano  stone,  was  used, 
taking  the  place  of  the  Eastern  roller  or  bell-pestle.  It  was  pushed 
back  and  forth  with  the  hand.  In  the  Southwest,  California,  and 
Mexico  some  of  the  metates  are  highly  ornamented,  and  have  legs, 
which  raised  the  body  of  the  stone  several  inches  from  the  ground. 
When  I  visited  the  Chaco  Group,  in  1897,  I  saw  several  hundred 
metates  scattered  about  on  the  surface  near  the  ruins.  In  explora 
tions  near  Phoenix,  Arizona,  in  November,  1897,  to  June,  1898,  I 
collected  more  than  ninety  good  metates.  In  Kelley  Cavern,  the 
Ozark  Mountains,  which  was  explored  by  Dr.  Charles  Peabodyand 
myself  in  May,  1908,  we  found  thirty-seven  stone  mills  in  one  cave 
alone,  and  that  cavern  was  no  more  than  two  hundred  feet  across 
the  front  and  about  a  hundred  feet  deep. 

Mr.  J.  B.  Lewis  of  Petaluma,  California,  now  deceased,  sent  me 
the  photograph  of  a  remarkable  collection  of  California  mortars. 
After  shipping  generous  quantities  to  various  scientific  institutions 
in  the  East,  Mr.  Lewis  still  had  several  hundred  in  his  possession. 
He  constructed  an  outdoor  cabinet  of  plank  and  placed  thereon 
a  portion  of  his  collection.  Fig.  511  illustrates  a  number  of  his  speci 
mens.  It  will  be  observed,  by  comparison  with  the  figure  of  Mr. 
Lewis  who  is  standing  at  the  right  of  his  cabinet,  that  the  largest 
mortars  at  the  bottom  are  not  upright  but  are  placed  at  an  angle. 
These  mortars  range  from  two  feet  in  diameter  to  those  about  a 
foot  high.  Many  of  these  weigh  as  much  as  seventy-five  or  a  hundred 
pounds  each.  The  smaller  mortars  are  on  the  upper  rows. 

Mr.  Lewis,  during  the  last  two  years  of  his  life,  wrote  me  many 
interesting  letters  regarding  the  character  of  the  various  stone 
objects  found  in  his  region.  He  was  a  keen  observer,  and  during  his 
fifty  years  of  residence  at  Petaluma  he  became  thoroughly  familiar 


MORTARS   AND    PESTLES 


107 


io8      THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 


*  » -A 


cio* 


FIG.  511.  Collection  of   J.  B.  Lewis,    Petaluma,    California.     Mr.  Lewis,  who  stands  at 
the  right,  was  fifty  years  in  making  this  collection. 

with  the  various  prehistoric  sites  in  that  part  of  California.  While 
I  make  substantial  quotations  from  these  letters,  I  change  his  lan 
guage  slightly:  — 

"On  Sonoma  Mountain,  seven  miles  from  Petaluma,  is  a  depres 
sion  in  the  hills  in  which  the  winter  rains  are  collected,  forming 
a  large  lake  or  lagoon  of  two  hundred  acres,  called  by  the  Indians 
Lagoon  La  Jara,  formerly  covered  with  a  tall  growth  of  tules,  the 
home  of  geese  and  ducks  and  blackbirds  in  their  season.  Some  forty 
years  since,  it  was  drained  and  brought  under  cultivation.  On 
ploughing,  stones  were  brought  to  light  called  'ceremonial  sinkers,' 
plumbs,  etc.  As  time  passes  fewer  are  found,  until  now  only  three 
or  four  a  year." 

Mr.  Lewis,  who  lived  within  two  miles  of  the  lake,  procured  half 


MORTARS   AND   PESTLES 

of  the  objects  thus  discovered.  Many  of  them 
are  shown  in  Fig.  383.  Another  collector  has 
secured  four  hundred.  In  the  summer  the  lagoon 
was  dry  or  nearly  so.  There  was  neither  inlet 
nor  outlet  and  no  fish  lived  in  its  waters.  There 
fore  the  stones  were  not  made  use  of  as  sinkers. 

' 'When  I  came  here  in  the  early  fifties,  there 
used  large  numbers  of  Indians  go  by  my  ranch  in 
the  fall,  down  to  the  creek  to  catch  sturgeon  and 
dry  them,  and  they  always  went  back  by  the  wray 
of  the  lagoon  and  stayed  a  day  or  two  and  had 
some  kind  of  a  pow-wow.  After  the  lagoon  was 
drained,  they  never  came  back." 
.  Mr.  Lewis,  on  arrival  in  California,  heard  that 
a  numerous  tribe  living  near  Petaluma  was  prac 
tically  exterminated  by  some  contagious  disease. 
He  believed  that  the  Indians  returning  annually 
to  hold  ceremonies  at  the  lagoon  belonged  to  this 
tribe. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  during  the  years 
of  Mr.  Lewis's  observations  he  found  that  the 
mortars  with  straight  sides  and  flat  bottoms  oc 
curred  near  Sonoma  Mountain,  where  boulders  of 


109 


FIG.  513.  (S.  1-4.) 
Long  effigy  pestle. 
Butler  farm,  north 
west  part  of  Turkey 
j  Hill,  Ipswich.  From 
the  collection  of  Pea- 

FIG.  512.   (S.  i-io.)  From  the  collection  of  H.  K.  Deisher,  body  Museum,  Salem, 

Kutztown,  Pennsylvania.  Massachusetts. 


no      THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  514.  (S.  1-4.)  From  the  collection  of  Beloit  College,  Beloit,  Wisconsin. 


MORTARS   AND    PESTLES 


in 


basalt  are  common.  But  in  the  sandy  hills  west  of  Petaluma  pointed 
or  urn-shaped  mortars,  such  as  are  shown  on  the  top  shelf  of  Fig. 
511,  are  found  in  some  numbers.  It  is  clear,  he  states,  that  the  vari 
ous  types  of  mortars  were  confined  to  certain  regions.  He  knew  of 
only  t\vo  mortars  found  in  Indian  graves.  In  one  instance,  where  a 
mortar  was  buried  with  an  Indian,  the  skull  wras  pierced  by  a  flint 
point.  Near  Santa  Rosa,  twenty  miles  from  his  home,  a  large  spring 
was  cleaned  out,  and  in  it  were  found  numerous  objects  of  stone. 
Mr.  Lewis  states  that  he  never  found  a.  mortar  and  pestle  placed 
together.  They  were  usually  found  separate.  While  the  plummets 
and  so-called  sinkers  are  found  scattered  throughout  this  region,  yet 
nine  tenths  of  his  collection  came  from  the  lagoon  previously  men 
tioned.  Not  only  has  he  found  mortars  upon  the  surface,  but  speci 
mens  have  been  dug  up  from  a  depth  of  twelve  feet  in  the  ground. 
The  cavities  may  be  large  or  small,  independent  of  size  of  mortar.  Of 


FIG.  515.  (S.  1-6.)    From  the  collection  of  W.  A.  Holmes, 
Chicago,  Illinois. 


ii2      THE   STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

his  entire  collection  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  mortars  he  states  that 
seventy-five  had  holes  in  the  bottom,  seventy-five  were  more  or  less 
broken,  fifty  were  considered  fair  specimens,  and  about  fifty  were 
perfect.  The  late  Mr.  Horatio  N.  Rust,  an  observer  of  much  experi 
ence  in  California  archaeology,  described  an  interesting  cache  of 
stone  bowls  some  years  ago. 1  I  quote  his  article :  - 

"Mr.  H.  W.  Hunt,  of  San  Fernando,  California,  has  been  tilling 
for  several  years  the  site  of  an  old  Indian  village,  and  in  doing  so  has 
unearthed  fragments  of  not  fewer  than  thirty  Indian  bowls,  but  no 
whole  specimen.  A  short  time  ago,  while  ploughing,  he  encountered 
a  stone,  and  in  digging  it  out  discovered  a  cache  of  twenty-one  sand 
stone  bowls  (see  Fig.  510)  carefully  packed  together  in  a  space  not 
exceeding  four  or  five  feet.  On  Mr.  Hunt's  invitation  I  personally 
examined  the  contents  of  this  interesting  cache,  finding  the  bowls 
quite  symmetrical  and  all  except  one  in  perfect  condition. 

"These  utensils  measure  about  ten  inches  in  greatest  diameter, 
and  from  seven  to  ten  inches  across  the  bottom ;  they  are  about  one 
and  one  fourth  inches  in  thickness  at  the  rim.  A  shallow  groove  is 
cut  in  the  edge  of  the  rim  of  each  vessel,  in  which  shell  beads  are 
set  in  asphaltum.  About  midway  in  the  inside  of  one  of  the  bowls 
a  series  of  holes,  about  one  fourth  of  an  inch  in  depth  and  diameter, 
is  cut,  and  in  each  of  these  holes  a  shell  bead  is  set  in  asphaltum. 
These  inset  beads  represent  the  only  attempt  at  ornamentation. 

"After  carefully  examining  the  field  in  which  these  vessels  were 
found  I  reached  the  conclusion  that  the  thirty  broken  bowls  indi 
cated  the  former  occupancy  of  the  site  by  a  village  of  consider 
able  size,  and  that  they  had  been  broken  by  an  enemy  rather  than 
through  use.  I  was  led  also  to  the  belief  that  the  villagers  had 
been  killed  and  many  of  their  vessels  destroyed,  but  that  the  preda 
tory  enemy  had  failed  to  find  the  cache  of  bowls,  which  had  been 
secreted  by  their  owners  in  fear  of  such  an  attack. 

'This  conclusion  was  reached  in  view  of  the  experience  gained 
from  the  examination  of  many  village-sites  in  California.  On  one 
occasion,  at  a  site  south  of  San  Jacinto  Mountain,  I  discovered 
twenty-five  stone  mortars,  within  the  radius  of  a  mile,  all  of  which 
had  been  broken  by  violence,  evidently  by  an  enemy  for  the  pur 
pose  of  depriving  the  villagers  of  an  important  means  of  preparing 
food.  Beside  these  mortars,  I  found  a  slab  of  green  talc,  about  eight 
by  fifteen  inches,  and  three  slabs  of  sandstone  of  about  the  same 

1  American  Anthropologist,  October- December,  1906,  p.  686. 


MORTARS   AND   PESTLES 


ii4       THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 


FlG.  517.    (S.  about  1-6.)    Found   at    Riverside,    Rhode   Island.    Material:  greenish  black 
slate.    Collection  of  S.  R.  Turner,  Riverside,  Rhode  Island. 

width  and  length  and  one  and  one  fourth  inches  in  thickness.  Frag 
ments  of  similar  sandstone  slabs  have  been  found  near  the  same 
site,  but  no  pestles  or  other  artifacts  that  had  not  been  broken,  a 
circumstance  that  would  seem  to  indicate  that  everything  had  been 
either  stolen  or  deliberately  destroyed." 

On  the  top  shelf  of  Mr.  Lewis's  exhibit  in  Fig.  511  are  pointed 
mortars  such  as  I  have  placed  under  classification  "  C."  Usually 
these  are  of  volcanic  rock,  worked  down  light  and  rather  thin. 
They  were  pointed  in  order  that  they  might  be  thrust  into  soft  earth, 
or  swampy  places  where  certain  reeds  and  roots  abounded,  they 
being  held  in  position  by  the  nature  of  the  soil,  wrhile  the  women 
ground  grain. 

Fig.  517  is  a  long,  beautifully  polished,  roller  pestle,  about  twrenty- 
six  inches  in  length  and  owned  by  Mr.  S.  R.  Turner,  Riverside, 
Rhode  Island,  and  Fig.  513  is  a  roller  pestle  with  an  effigy  head 
carved  at  one  end.  It  is  impossible  to  determine  what  this  effigy 
represents.  This  is  from  the  Salem  collection,  was  found  near  Ips 
wich,  and  is  about  thirty  inches  in  length. 


FIG.  518.    (S.  1-3.)  Stone  bowl  from  the  collection  of  H.  S. 
Hurlbutt,  Libertyville,  Illinois. 


MORTARS   AND    PESTLES  115 

Doubtless  there  are  not  a  few  objects  classed  as  mortars  which 
were  food  receptacles.  I  have  included  several  in  this  chapter. 
The  conditions  under  which  some  of  these  more  highly  finished 
bowls  are  found  leads  us  to  admit  ignorance  of  their  true  meaning. 

Fig.  518  is  a  delicate  stone  bowl  from  Illinois;  Fig.  519  is  a  lime 
stone  bowl,  shown  one  third  size.  This  was  found  in  the  oblong 
mound  of  the  Hopewell  Group  in  1901,  by  our  survey.  Neither  of 
these  specimens  is  to  be  classed  as  a  mortar.  Both  are  highly  finished, 


FIG.  519.  (S.  about  1-3.)  Stone  bowl  of  twelve  or  thirteen  pounds  weight.  Cut 
from  solid  limestone.  It  is  somewhat  like  the  type  of  bowls  found  on  the  Pacific 
Coast,  and  nothing  comparable  to  it  has  been  discovered  in  our  Ohio  Valley  mounds. 

and  the  limestone  bowl  is  an  unusual  specimen,  nothing  just  like  it 
having  been  found  in  America.  We  cannot  imagine  that  these  were 
made  use  of  to  contain  ordinary  food. 

Mr.  C.  E.  Brown  writes  of  his  region:  - 

"A  small  number  of  stone  pestles  have  been  found  in  Wisconsin, 
and  a  few  hollowed-out  stones  which  appear  to  have  been  employed 
as  mortars.  The  Wisconsin  savages  employed  wooden  mortars  for 
crushing  their  corn  and  wild  rice.  These  were  hollows  cut  into  the 
side  of  logs  or  made  of  sections  of  logs  hollowed  out.  Wooden  pestles 
were  employed  with  these.  At  Lake  Winnebago  and  elsewhere  in 
the  Fox  River  Valley  are  large  boulders  upon  the  tops  of  which  are 


n6      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  519  A.   (S.  1-7.)    Two  are  of  steatite,  and  one   of  limestone.    They  were  found  in 
eastern  Kentucky.    From  the  collection  of  B.  H.  Young,  Louisville,  Kentucky. 

shallow  depressions  in  which  the  Indians  of  recent  times  are  known 
to  have  ground  corn." 

There  are  no  special  conclusions  to  be  reached  with  reference  to 
mortars  and  pestles.  An  inspection,  in  any  public  museum,  of  col 
lections  from  the  Northwest  Coast,  Pacific  Coast,  and  New  England 
will  acquaint  the  readers  with  the  fact  that  both  the  mortar  and  the 
pestle  were  sometimes  highly  ornamented  and  worked  into  fanciful 
forms.  Fig.  516,  a  remarkable  metate  from  Professor  Barr's  collec 
tion,  is  an  illustration  of  the  point  I  have  in  mind.  Metates  of  this 
character  are  common  in  Mexico  and  Central  America.  Those  who 
have  studied  symbolism  see  evidences  of  phallic  worship  in  many 
of  the  pestles  from  California  and  the  Northwest.  The  range  in 
all  tools  and  receptacles  needed  in  the  Indian's  domestic  science, 
is  considerable,  and  covers  the  entire  field  from  the  rough  pebble 
to  the  effigy  pestle,  or  the  metate,  almost  table-like  in  character. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

OBJECTS    OF    SHELL 

ABORIGINAL  man  used  shell  and  bone  for  a  variety  of  purposes. 
He  frequently  made  of  these  substances  the  same  forms  that  he  did 
in  flint  or  stone,  and  if  one  were  classifying  under  use,  one  would 
include,  under  arrow-points,  not  only  those  of  flint,  but  of  bone  and 
shell  as  well.  The  same  is  true  of  the  beads  and  of  flat  ornaments, 
which  may  be  of  shell,  or  bone,  quite  as  often  as  of  stone.  But  since 
we  have  begun  to  classify  these  objects  according  to  material,  it  is 
necessary  to  place  under  the  above  head  many  artifacts  that  would 
naturally  fall  into  another  subdivision,  were  we  to  ignore  materials. 


FIG.  520.  (S.  i -i.)  Shell  hoe  from  the  village-site  at  Fort  Ancient,  Ohio. 


n8      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


Generally  throughout  North  America  shells  were  made  use  of  for 
ornamentation.  Shell  beads  are  as  widely  distributed  as  chipped 
implements  and  more  generally  found  throughout  the  United  States 
than  pottery.  In  fact,  in  most  cemeteries,  mounds,  and  cliff-houses 
where  human  burials  occur,  are  strings  of  beads  of  various  kinds 

and  sizes.  I  might  enumerate 
all  the  shells  found  in  both 
fresh  water  and  salt,  and  made 
use  of  by  the  natives  in  Amer 
ica,  but  this  is  hardly  required. 
However,  were  I  writing  more 
extendedly  upon  shell  objects, 
it  would  be  necessary  to  give 
all  the  names.  These  are  pur 
posely  omitted. 

The    classification    of    shell 
objects  is  as  follows:  - 

1.  For  domestic  service. 

2.  For  ornamentation. 
Under  No.  i   there  are  the 

following  subdivisions :  - 

a.  Shells    used    as    hoes. 
(Fig.  520.) 

As  club-heads.    (None 
shown.) 

As    cups    and    bowls. 
(Fig.  522.) 
Under  No.  2  : 

a.  As  small  beads,  round 
or    cylindrical.      (Figs. 
521,  521  4.) 
Ear    and    nose    orna- 


b. 


c. 


FIG.  521.  (S.  1-4.)  Collection  of  B.  Beasley, 
Montgomery,  Alabama. 


b. 


ments,  circular  or  oval. 

(Fig.  523.) 


c.  Hairpins.    (Fig.  525.) 

d.  Bracelets  and  finger-rings.    (None  shown.) 

e.  Engraved  shell  gorgets.    (Figs.  530  to  535.) 

f.  Pendants  and  unknown  forms.    (Figs.  524,  529.) 

g.  Effigies.    (Fig.  537.) 

The  larger  shells  of  the  Atlantic  Coast  between  the  mouth  of  the 


OBJECTS   OF   SHELL 


119 


' 


• 


« 


FIG.  521  A.    (S.  1-2.)    Beads   from    Trigg  County,  at  mouth  of  Little  River,  where  it 
enters  the  Cumberland  River,  Kentucky.    Bennett  H.  Young's  collection. 


120      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

Potomac  and  the  Mississippi  were  employed  by  the  Florida,  South 
Carolina,  and  Louisiana  Indians  as  digging-tools,  heads  to  clubs,  etc. 

Mr.  Clarence  B.  Moore,  during  the  course  of  his  extensive  explora 
tions  in  Florida  and  Alabama,  found  great  quantities  of  large  shells 
which  had  been  used  as  domestic  tools.  It  is  well  known  that  the 
shell  mounds  of  Florida  equal  in  size  many  mounds  of  earth  or  stone, 
farther  north. 

In  the  North,  the  fresh- water  unio  shells  were  made  general  use 
of  as  hoes,  such  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  520,  which  was  found  at  Fort 
Ancient,  Ohio,  on  the  village-site  along  the  banks  of  the  Miami 


FIG.  522.  (S.  1-4.)  Large  shells,  Hopewell  Mounds,  Ohio. 

River.  It  was  much  easier  to  perforate  these  shells  and  use  them 
as  hoes  than  to  work  out  flint  or  wooden  hoes.  Persons  who  explore 
ancient  sites  find  them  in  the  ash-pits.  The  edges  are  always  bat 
tered,  or  worn  smooth,  proving  that  they  were  of  importance  as 
agricultural  implements. 

Short,  heavy  shells  were  perforated  and  fastened  to  clubs  for 
weapons  and  digging-tools.  Moore  describes  and  illustrates  many 
of  these.1 

1  "Antiquities  of  the  Florida  West  Coast,"  Journal  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences, 
Philadelphia,  1900. 


OBJECTS   OF   SHELL 


121 


FIG.  523.  (S.  i-i .)  The  typical  shell  nose  and  ear  ornaments  are  shown  in 
this  illustration.  These  six  were  found  by  W.  C.  Mills  on  the  Baum  Village- 
Site,  Ross  County,  Ohio. 

Bits  of  shell  may  have  been  set  in  handles,  for  use  as  "swords," 
after  the  manner  of  South  Sea  natives. 

However,  while  shells  were  useful  for  other  purposes,  yet  it  was 
for  ornamentation  that  most  of  them  were  used. 

Fig.  521,  from  the  collection  of  Mr.  B.  Beasley,  Montgomery,  Ala 
bama,  is  an  illustration  of  small  disc  beads  in  the  centre,  larger  beads 
about  the  margin  and  the  string  of  rude  and  irregular  shell  beads 
enclosing  the  rectangular  exhibit  referred  to.  This  is  about  one- 
fourth  size.  Shell  beads  range  in  size  from  minute  ones  as  small  as 
those  on  the  black  background  in  the  centre  of  the  picture,  to  others 
three  inches  in  diameter.  Mr.  Clarence  B.  Moore  found  shell  beads 
as  large  as  walnuts  in  his  Florida  and  Alabama  explorations. 

Fig.  521  A  shows  a  number  of  various  shell  beads,  together  with 
a  few  stone  beads  from  mounds  and  graves  at  the  mouth  of  Little 
River,  Kentucky. 

Large  numbers  of  pearl  beads,  have  been  found  in  the  altar 
mounds  of  the  Scioto  Valley,  Ohio,  and  in  the  South.  De  Soto's  nar 
rative  states  that  the  Indians,  in  1540-42,  possessed  many  bushels 
of  these  pearls.  Some  were  of  beautiful  form  and  high  lustre.  All 


122       THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH    AMERICA 

of  these  would  have  been  very  valuable,  but  for  the  fact  that  the 
natives  drilled  a  hole  through  each  one,  thus,  from  our  point  of  view, 
ruining  them. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  the  pearl  beads  found  in  the  altars  of 
the  Hopewell  Group,  when  new  and  undrilled,  were  worth  upwards 
of  a  million  dollars. 

Practically  all  shell  ornaments  were  made  from  the  larger  unio 
shells  and  also  from  the  busycon  and  pyrula  shells  of  Florida  and  the 
Carolinas.  Fig.  522  presents  one  of  these  shells  as  yet  uncut  which 
was  found  in  a  mound  at  the  Hopewell  Group  and  another  which 
has  been  cut  down  into  the  form  of  a  large  dipper  or  drinking- vessel. 

The  ornamentation  on  large  shell  gorgets  is  complicated  and  char 
acteristic.  I  am  not  sufficiently  familiar  with  California  shell  gorgets 


f  9?9 


Oo 


Fir..  524.  (S.  varying.)    Shell   ornaments    from   California.    Peabody  Museum  collection, 

Cambridge,  Massachusetts. 


OBJECTS   OF   SHELL 


123 


to  state  whether  they  are  ever  engraved.  Fig.  529,  from  Professor 
Barr's  collection,  presents  as  highly  developed  gorgets  as  I  have 
seen  from  the  Pacific  Coast.  It  is  in  the  mounds  and  stone  graves 
of  the  Cumberland  and  Tennessee  valleys  that  the  art  in  engraving 
or  decorating  gorgets  seems  to  have  reached  its  height.  In  Figs. 
530,  531,  532,  533,  534,  and  535  are  presented  beautiful  specimens 


FlG.  525.  (S.  3-7.)  This  figure  illustrates  some  of  the  shell  hairpins,  rather  rare  in  Ohio, 
but  frequently  found  in  the  South.  These  are  from  the  collection  of  Mr.  John  T.  Reeder, 
Houghton,  Michigan,  and  were  found  in  Alabama  and  Tennessee.  It  would  be  impossible 
to  drill  with  these,  and  by  common  consent  they  are  called  hairpins. 


124      THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH    AMERICA 


FIG.  526.  (S.  1-2.)  An  engraved  shell  gorget  found  in  the 
glacial  kame  burials  in  northern  Ohio.  This  is  shown  half- 
size  and  is  a  remarkable  specimen.  The  material  is  from  a 
large  fresh-water  unio. 

from  the  collections  of  Mr.  John  T.  Reeder,  Colonel  Young,  and  the 
Smithsonian  Institution. 

Professor  William  H.  Holmes  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  has 
studied  shell  objects  more  than  any  one  else  in  this  country.  I  quote 
from  his  description  of  Fig.  534 :l 

"Among  the  many  interesting  relics  obtained  from  mounds  and 
burial-places  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  are  the  engraved  shell  gorgets, 


FIG.  527.  (1-2.)  Two  small  shell  ornaments  from  the 
collection  of  John  T.  Reeder,  Houghton,  Michigan. 
These  were  found  in  a  mound  on  Long  Island,  Ten 
nessee.  The  one  to  the  right  is  especially  interesting 
in  that  the  body  of  the  shell  is  cut  out,  forming  the 
bars  of  the  cross.  Such  gorgets  are  exceedingly  rare. 

1  "  Shell  Ornaments  from  Kentucky  and    Mexico,"  Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collec 
tions  (quarterly  issue),  vol.  XLV,    p.  97.    Published  Dec.  9,  1903. 


OBJECTS   OF   SHELL 


125 


FIG.  528.  (S.  1-2.)  Four  flat  pendants  found  in  Pilot  Mound,  Manitoba,  by  Henry  Mont 
gomery.  Two  copper  beads  and  one  shell  bead,  Pilot  Mound,  Manitoba.  Two  bone  whis 
tles,  respectively  nine  and  ten  inches  long,  from  mound  near  Sourisford,  Manitoba. 

a  number  of  which  are  now  preserved  in  our  museums.  The  most 
recent  addition  to  this  class  of  objects  was  obtained  by  the  National 
Museum  from  Mr.  C.  A.  Nelson  of  Eddyville,  Lyon  County,  Ken 
tucky,  and  comes  from  a  burial-place  encountered  in  opening  a 
stone-quarry  near  Eddyville.  It  is  a  symmetric  saucer-shaped  gorget, 
Fig.  534,  five  inches  in  diameter  and  made  apparently  from  the 
expanded  lip  of  a  conch  shell  (Busy con  perversum).  It  is  unusually 
well  preserved,  both  faces  retaining  something  of  the  original  high 
polish  of  the  ornament.  Two  perforations  placed  near  the  margin 
served  as  a  means  of  suspension.  The  back  or  convex  side  is  quite 
plain,  while  the  face  is  occupied  by  the  engraving  of  a  human  figure 
which  extends  entirely  across  the  disc.  It  will  be  seen  by  reference 
to  the  illustration  that  this  figure  is  practically  identical  in  many 
respects  with  others  already  published.1  It  is  executed  in  firmly 
incised  lines  and  is  partially  inclosed  by  a  border  of  nine  concentric 
lines.  The  position  of  the  figure  is  that  of  a  discus- thro wrer.  The 
right  hand  holds  a  discoidal  object,  the  arm  being  thrown  back  as 
if  in  the  act  of  casting  the  disc.  The  left  hand  extends  outward  to 

1  Holmes,  in  Second  Annual  Report,  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  pi.  LXXIII. 


126      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  529.  (S.  1-3.)  James  A.  Barr  collection,  Stockton,  California. 

the  margin  of  the  shell  and  firmly  grasps  a  wand-like  object  having 
plumes  attached  at  the  upper  end,  the  lower  end  being  peculiarly 
marked,  and  bent  inward  across  the  border  lines.  The  face  is  turned 
to  the  left;  the  right  knee  is  bent  and  rests  on  the  ground,  while  the 
left  foot  is  set  forward  as  it  would  be  in  the  act  of  casting  the  disc. 
The  features  are  boldly  outlined;  the  eye  is  diamond-shaped,  as  is 
usual  in  the  delineations  of  this  character  in  the  mound  region.  A 
crest  or  crown  representing  the  hair  surmounts  the  head ;  the  lower 
lobe  of  the  ear  contains  a  disc  from  which  falls  a  long  pendant  orna 
ment,  and  three  lines  representing  paint  or  tattoo  marks  extend 
across  the  cheek  from  the  ear  to  the  mouth.  A  bead  necklace  hangs 


OBJECTS   OF   SHELL  127 


FIG.  530.  (S.  2-3.)  Collection  of  J.  T.  Reeder,  Houghton,  Michigan. 

down  over  the  chest  and  the  legs  and  arms  have  encircling  orna 
ments.  The  lower  part  of  the  body  is  covered  with  an  apron-like 
garment  attached  to  the  waistband,  and  over  this  hangs  what  ap 
pears  to  be  a  pouch  with  pendant  ornaments.  The  moccasins  are  of 
the  usual  Indian  type  and  are  well  delineated.  A  study  of  this  figure 
strongly  suggests  the  idea  that  it  must  represent  a  disc-thrower 
engaged,  possibly,  in  playing  the  well-known  game  of  chunky." 

Regarding  Fig.  535  of  Colonel  Young's  collection,  Professor  Holmes 
writes  me,  under  date  of  March  28,  1910,  as  follows:  — 

'The  shell  gorget  from  Lincoln  County,  Kentucky,  is  exception 
ally  large,  being  six  inches  in  diameter.  The  design  is  engraved  on 
the  concave  surface  and  represents  a  double-headed  eagle  treated 
in  a  very  conventional  manner.  The  heads  are  well  drawn,  but  the 
bodies  are  simplified  so  that  two  legs  only  with  characteristic  talons 
are  shown.  The  tail  is  single.  The  work  corresponds  in  style  to 
similar  delineations  on  clay  and  other  materials  throughout  a  large 
part  of  the  Gulf  States,  as  shown  fully  in  the  works  of  Mr.  Clarence 
B.  Moore.  It  is  not  possible  to  say  whether  or  not  the  duplication 
of  the  heads  had  any  significance,  or  whether  it  is  the  result  simply  of 
the  common  practice  in  primitive  art  of  employing  modified  natural 
forms  to  accommodate  the  spaces  to  be  embellished.  That  the  eagle, 
however,  had  some  special  significance  with  the  peoples  concerned, 
may  be  taken  for  granted." 


128      THE  STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


k, 


FIG.  531.  (8.2-3.) 

Collection  of  J.  T.  Reeder,  Houghton,  Michi 
gan.  The  upper  figure  is  from  a  mound  on  Long 
Island,  Tennessee  River,  Jackson  County,  Ala 
bama.  The  lower  figure  is  from  a  mound  at 
the  mouth  of  Chickamauga  Creek,  Hamilton 
County,  Tennessee. 


FIG.  532.  (S.  2-3.) 

Collection  of  J.  T.  Reeder,  Houghton,  Michi 
gan.  The  upper  figure  is  from  a  mound  at  Citico 
Furnace,  Chattanooga,  Tennessee.  The  lower 
figure  is  from  a  mound  at  Long  Island,  near 
Bridgeport,  Jackson  County,  Alabama. 


OF 


OBJECTS   OF   SHELL 


129 


FIG-  533-   (S.  1-3.)  Shell  gorgets  from  Kentucky.    Bennett  H.  Young's  collection. 


130      THE  STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  534.  (S.  2-3.)  Shell  gorget  from  Lyon  County,  Kentucky. 

Museum  collection. 


United  States  National 


533  presents  six  beautiful  engraved  gorgets  from  Colonel 
Young's  collection,  who  has  in  his  exhibit  as  many  engraved  shells 
as  any  other  collector  in  this  country.  For  many  years  he  has  inter 
ested  himself  in  the  archaeology  of  Kentucky  and  has  preserved 


OBJECTS  OF  SHELL 


:     I   '. 


FIC:-  535-  ($•  2-3.)  Collection  of  Bennett  H.  Young,  Louisville,  Kentucky. 

thousands  of  specimens.  No.  3  in  this  plate  is  shown  in  a  larger 
form  in  Fig.  535.  Xo.  4  is  one  of  the  rare  gorgets  with  the  design 
of  the  cross  worked  out  by  cutting  entirely  through  the  shell.  No. 
6  is  practically  the  same  as  the  right-hand  specimen  in  Fig.  530, 
only  that  it  is  worked  in  higher  relief.  The  exact  meaning  of  these 
carvings  is  unknown  at  the  present  time. 

The  natives  living  in   the  great  pueblos  of  the  Salado  Valley, 


132      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  536.    (S.  i -i.)   Shell  frog,  two  shell  effigies,  onyx  bead,  and  effigy- 
fish  (jade?).   From  the  large  ruin  near  Mesa,  Arizona. 

southern  Arizona,  and  in  fact  throughout  that  entire  region,  made 
use  of  a  great  many  shells  found  along  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of 
California.  Not  only  did  they  make  ordinary  beads,  after  the  man 
ner  of  the  Northern  Indians,  but  they  also  made  finger-rings  and 
bracelets.  These  have  been  so  frequently  illustrated,  I  have  pur 
posely  left  them  out.  They  worked  all  manner  of  effigies  out  of 
shell,  as  is  shown  in  Figs.  536-37,  from  the  collection  at  Andover. 
These  specimens  were  obtained  by  me  while  exploring  in  1897  and 
1898  for  Mr.  R.  S.  Peabody,  founder  of  the  Department  at  Andover. 


OBJECTS  OF  SHP:LL 


133 


There  are  also  shell  frogs  inlaid  with  turquoise  —  real  mosaic 
work.  Dr.  Fewkes  has  illustrated  some  effigies  of  this  nature,  in  his 
reports,  and  Dr.  Pepper  found  numbers  of  them  at  the  great  Chaco 
Group  of  ruins,  northern  New  Mexico.  When  the  first  shell  frogs 
were  discovered  by  the  late  Frank  Hamilton  Gushing,  some  of  the 
archaeologists  went  so  far  as  to  say  that  Gushing  had  made  these, 


FIG.  537.  (S.  1-2  to  1-3.)  Shell  objects  from  Arizona. 

but'  now  so  many  of  them  have  been  found  that  Cushing's  original 
contentions  are  verified. 

It  is  surprising,  the  skill  of  prehistoric  man  in  carving.  When 
Squier  and  Davis  made  their  exploration  of  the  mounds  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley,  they  found  many  highly  carved  and  ornamented 
pipes.  Years  afterwards,  observers  who  were  unjustly  skeptical 
endeavored  to  prove  that  these  were  made  with  rat- tail  files  or 
were  the  work  of  white  traders.  Since  the  time  of  Squier  and  Davis, 
even  more  remarkable  carvings,  work  in  copper,  intricate  designs 
on  shell,  and  various  tablets  have  been  unearthed,  in  numbers,  and 
by  men  against  whom  no  charge  could  be  made. 

It  will  be  seen  by  an  inspection  of  the  few  shell  objects  that  I  have 
illustrated  that,  notwithstanding  the  lack  of  iron  tools,  aboriginal 
man  in  America  was  no  mean  artist. 


CHAPTER   XXIX 

OBJECTS    OF    BONE 

BONE  objects  served  practical  purposes  more  than  they  did 
ornamental  uses.  Of  course  some  bones  were  worked  into  ornaments, 
but  more  of  them  were  in  use  as  utility  tools  than  otherwise.  The 
classification  of  bone  tools  is  a  subject  to  which  one  must  give  no 
little  thought,  for  the  material  ranges  from  ordinary  beads  to  highly 
decorated  and  grooved  cylinders,  or  tubes.  Therefore,  I  am  not 
fully  satisfied  with  the  classification  I  herewith  present,  and  hope 
at  a  future  date  to  improve  upon  it. 

1 .  Utility  and  domestic  purposes. 

(a)  Bone  awls.    (Figs.  538-39-) 

(b)  Harpoons.    (Figs.  541-42.) 

(c)  Ladles,  spoons,  etc.    (Figs.  544~45-) 

(d)  Bone  fish-hooks.    (Figs.  546-48.) 

(e)  Tool-handles.    (Figs.  549-50.) 

(f)  Bone  scrapers  and  celts.    (Fig.  551.) 

(g)  Arrow-shaft  reducers.    (Fig.  554.) 
(h)  Bone  chipping- tools.    (Fig.  41.) 

2.  Bone  objects  for  decorative  purposes. 

(a)  Bone  beads.    (Fig.  546.) 

(b)  Bone  pendants.    (Fig.  556.) 

(c)  Bones  used  in  head-dresses.    (Figs.  552-53.) 

(d)  Tracings  on  bone.    (Figs.  564-65.) 

(e)  Bone  effigies.    (Figs.  557,  567.) 

Bone  objects  in  the  United  States  were  in  widespread  use,  and  they 
served  many  purposes.  In  the  Mississippi  Valley  more  of  them  were 
worked  into  beads  and  awls  than  into  anything  else,  but  on  the 
Great  Plains  they  were  made  use  of  for  many  purposes.  The  tips 
of  antlers  were  sharpened  and  fastened  on  arrows.  In  the  Mandan 
country,  North  Dakota,  and  elsewhere  in  the  West  where  stone  was 
scarce,  the  bones  of  the  buffalo  served  as  clubs,  the  shoulder  blades 
as  digging-tools,  and  the  ribs  were  polished  and  ground  to  an  edge 
and  used  as  knives  and  scraping- tools.  The  teeth  of  carnivorous 
animals  were  mounted  as  ornaments,  and  long  slender  bones  of  the 


OBJECTS   OF   BONE 


135 


FIG.  538.    (S.  i-i.)   Typical  bone  awls  from  the  collection  of  S.  D.  Mitchell, 

Ripon,  Wisconsin. 


136      THE   STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

smaller  animals  were  cut  into  beads.    Bone  and  horn  spoons  were 
doubtless  common  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States. 

A  larger  percentage  of  bone  awls  have  been  recovered  from  village- 
sites  than  of  other  objects  in  bone,  excepting  beads.  The  ash-pits 
of  village-sites  preserved  practically  everything  encompassed  by 
them  because  of  the  preservative  quality  of  ashes.  Therefore,  I  have 
always  believed  that  the  proportion  of  bone  awls  to  other  things  is 
no  criterion  as  to  the  use  of  bone  among  the  aborigines.  In  the  caves 
of  the  Ozarks,  during  three  seasons  of  exploration,  \ve  recovered 
upwards  of  a  hundred  bone  awls.  More  than  fifty  were  taken  from 
the  ashes  of  Kelley  Cavern  alone.  It  must  be  remembered  that  these 
caves,  as  is  also  true  of  the  village-sites  of  central  United  States  and 
the  South,  mark  the  residence  place  of  natives  where,  perhaps, 


FIG.  539.  (S.  2-3.)  Blunt-pointed  awls 
found  with  burials.  Baum  Village-Site, 
Ohio.  William  C.  Mills's  collection. 


FIG.  540.  (S.  about  3-4.)  To  the  left, 
bone  awls  made  from  the  tarsometa- 
tarsus  of  the  wild  turkey.  To  the  right, 
bone  needles.  All  from  the  Harness 
Mound,  Scioto  Valley,  Ohio. 


OBJECTS   OF   BONE  137 

women  predominated.  Assuming  that  because  of  wars  there  were 
usually  more  women  than  men,  —  and  I  think  that  the  early  Amer 
ican  history  will  bear  out  this  statement,  —  the  domestic  arts  were 
in  excess  of  the  other  arts;  and  even  if  the  persons  engaged  in 
domestic  science  were  in  the  minority  there  would  naturally  be  more 
cooking,  garment-making,  weaving,  and  general  domestic  science  in 
vogue  in  a  village  or  a  cave  or  a  cliff-dwelling  than  elsewhere.  It  is 
not  surprising,  therefore,  that  awls  and  hammer-stones,  pestles  and 
mortars,  rough  axes  and  hoes  should  predominate  in  such  places. 
An  unknown  number  of  bone  effigies  and  bone  tools  that  must  have 
been  made  and  used  by  the  ancient  people  have  disappeared,  because 
as  in  the  case  of  textile  fabrics  they  were  not  preserved  unless  buried 
in  ashes. 

Aboriginal  man  was  very  saving.  When  he  killed  a  deer  or  a  bear 
he  not  only  made  use  of  the  meat  and  the  hide^but  also  of  the  bones 
and  sinews.  The  proof  of  such  economy  lies  in  any  large  village-site, 
where  one  finds  in  the  ashes  bones  of  practically  every  bird,  ani 
mal,  and  fish  formerly  in  the  neighborhood.  And  these  bones  have 
been  broken,  or  cut,  or  sawed.  Some  of  them  indicate  the  beginning 
of  workmanship,  many  of  them  are  broken  to  extract  the  marrow, 
and  others  are  perfect.  The  exhibit  is  just  such  as  one  would  expect 
from  the  camp-site  of  savages.  After  the  feast  was  over  and  the 
bones  cast  out,  in  the  ensuing  days,  when  these  bones  had  become 
more  or  less  dry,  the  man,  the  woman,  or  perhaps  the  boy,  gathered 
them  up  and  worked  them  into  the  forms  presented  in  this  chapter. 

The  use  of  bones  for  harpoons  was  widespread.  In  fact  no  sub 
stance  is  more  convenient.  The  skeletal  remains  of  numerous  ani 
mals,  birds,  and  fish  furnished  the  Indians  with  bones  of  various 
sizes  and  shapes,  and  it  is  quite  likely  that  such  bones  as  could  be 
made  use  of  were  stored  away,  and  that  the  aborigines  selected  the 
bone  suited  to  their  purpose  and  went  to  work  on  it  to  manufacture 
the  harpoon,  or  the  awl,  or  the  ornament.  Harpoons  seem  to  have 
been  more  in  use  in  the  North  than  in  the  South,  and  more  are  found 
in  the  St.  Lawrence  basin,  Canada,  and  northern  New  England,  and 
New7  York  State,  than  elsewhere  in  the  United  States.  The  same  is 
true  of  the  Eskimo  country,  where  bone  harpoon-points  are  very 
common.  Illustrations  538,  541,  542,  present  four  different  bone 
harpoons. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  explain  the  preponderance  of  harpoons  in  the 
North  and  the  scarcity  of  them  in  the  South.  They  are  essentially 


'Ki.  541.  (S.  2-3.)  Bone  harpoon.   P.  D.  \Yin- 
hip's  collection,  Park  Rapids,  Minnesota. 


FIG.  542.   (S.  1-2.)    (See  Fig.  543 
for  description.) 


Description  of  Figs.  542  and  543. 

Objects  of  antler,  bone,  shell,  and 
copper  from  North  Dakota  mounds: 

a.  Deer  antler  tines,  showing  per 
forations  and  notches. 

b.  Bone  anklet,  somewhat  broken, 
but  showing  entire  length  in  front. 

c.  Carved  tine  of  a  deer's  antler. 

d.  Bead  made  from  the  columella  of 
a  marine  shell. 

e.  Pearly  shell  buttons  or  ornaments, 
perforated  or  notched ;  found  with  the 
anklet  shown  in  b. 

f.  Flat  piece  of  copper  coiled  into 
a  bead. 

g.  Small  marine    shells   perforated 
by  grinding. 

h.  Pearly  shell  rings,  probably  a  por 
tion  of  a  necklace. 

i.  Bone  fishing-spear. 

From  Henry  Montgomery's  collec 
tion,  Toronto,  Canada. 


FIG.  543.  ( 


140      THE  STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  544.   (S.  1-3.)    Elk-horn  spoons,  from  Humboldt  County,  California. 
H.  K.  Deisher's  collection. 

a  cold-climate  implement.  In  the  St.  Lawrence  region,  where  they 
abound,  nets  and  traps  cannot  be  used  save  during  summer  and 
fall.  The  winter  sets  in  early,  and  the  spring  is  late.  While  fish 
were  harpooned  when  on  the  spawning-beds,  yet  most  of  the  har 
pooning  was  done  in  the  winter.  Even  to  this  late  date  the  Ojibwa 
Indians  spear  great  quantities  of  fish  in  the  winter  season.  Pickerel, 
pike,  muscalonge  are  attracted  by  a  moving  bait.  The  Indian  cuts 
a  hole  through  the  ice,  and  erects  a  small  structure  to  shield  himself 
from  the  wind.  An  effigy  of  a  fish  made  of  wood  or  bone,  or  in  these 
modern  times  of  tin,  is  dangled  about  four  or  five  feet  beneath  the 
ice.  Large  fish  approach  this  decoy,  and  as  they  are  more  sluggish 
in  their  movements  in  the  winter,  the  Indian  has  no  difficulty  in 
driving  the  spear  into  such  one  as  he  wishes,  before  it  is  able  to 
drawr  out  of  range.  I  suppose  that  the  method  did  not  vary  in 


OBJECTS   OF   BONE 


141 


ancient  times.   Naturally,  where  possible,  the  Indians  preferred  to 
set  nets  or  build  fish-weirs.  But  prac 
tically    all    the    nets    and    weirs    of 
ancient  times  have  long  since  disap 
peared. 

Fig.  541  illustrates  a  large,  strong 
harpoon  of  bone.  This  spear  has  sev 
eral  prominent  barbs.  The  musca- 
longe  and  sturgeon  of  the  far  North 
were  large,  strong  fish  and  required  a 
heavy  spear  to  hold  them.  Whether 
the  Indians  of  the  Lake  Superior  re 
gion  in  ancient  times  made  use  of 
the  spear  with  a  detachable  point, 
to  which  was  attached  a  cord  and 
float,  I  am  unable  to  state.  Possi 
bly  they  made  use  of  devices  of  that 
sort. 

In  the  East  and  the  North  the 
harder  and  heavier  bones,  such  as 
the  horns  of  elk,  deer,  and  moose, 
were  made  use  of  as  gouges,  celts, 
and  scrapers.  Numbers  of  these  have 
been  found  at  Madisonville  cemetery, 
in  the  Little  Miami  Valley,  ten  miles 
north  of  Cincinnati,  and  also  in  the 
Iroquois  sites  along  the  Mohawk 
River  in  western  New  York.  Mr. 
David  Boyle,  Curator  of  the  Provin 
cial  Museum,  Toronto,  presents  de 
scriptions  of  a  number  of  horn  im 
plements  in  his  publications.1 

Bones  were  made  use  of  as 
spoons,  and  ladles.  Numerous  ex 
amples  of  these  are  not  wanting 
in  the  museums.  The  longer,  slen 
der  bones  were  ground  and  pol- 


1  Notes  on  Primitive  Man  in  Ontario.  Report 
of  the  Minister  of  Education  for  Ontario.  To 
ronto,  1895,  pp.  73-81. 


FIG.  545.  (S.  3-4.)  This  is  a  long  spoon, 
badly  decayed,  but  sufficiently  preserved 
for  us  to  determine  its  character.  It  is 
about  six  inches  in  length.  It  was  found 
under  an  old  building  in  Salem,  Massa 
chusetts,  and  is  in  the  Pea  body  Mu 
seum.  Very  few  bone  or  horn  spoons, 
ladles,  and  dishes  of  the  Indians  remain, 
and  yet  we  know  that  a  great  many  were 
made  and  used  by  primitive  man  in  the 
United  States. 


142       THE   STONE   AGE    IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  546.  (S.  2-3.)   Beads,  arrow-points,  and  bone  fish-hooks,  from  the  Mandan  Village- 
Site,  North  Dakota. 

ished  and  pointed,  and  may  have  served  as  hairpins  and  cloak- 
fasteners.  A  splendid  example  of  what  we  have  considered  bone 
hairpins  was  taken  from  the  ashes  in  Kelley  Cavern,  Arkansas. 
This  bone  was  found  at  a  depth  of  five  feet,  and  is  nine  inches  long. 
The  slender  bones  of  turkeys  and  geese  were  often  made  into 
whistles,  the  medicine-men  used  them,  and  bone  tubes  were  fre 
quently  employed  by  shamans  in  drawing  the  evil  spirit  from  the 
bodies  of  the  sick.  Small  digits  were  worked  into  necklaces.  Special 
bones  of  certain  animals,  it  is  supposed,  were  the  property  of  the 
medicine-men  and  were  used  in  their  incantations.  The  skull  of 
the  buffalo  played  an  important  part  in  the  mythology  except 
among  Plains  tribes.  I  shall  not  treat  of  that  phase  of  the  subject 
in  this  volume,  but  refer  readers  to  the  list  of  titles  in  the  Biblio 
graphy,  under  Buffalo;  which  will  be  found  to  contain  full  descrip 
tions  of  the  ceremonies  connected  with  the  buffalo.  In  another  part 
of  this  work  (Volume  i,  pages  208-09)  I  refer  to  the  importance  of 
the  buffalo  to  Indians  through  an  extent  of  territory  fifteen  hun 
dred  by  one  thousand  miles. 


OBJECTS   OF   BONE  143 


FIG.  547.  (S.  2-3.)  Stages  of  fish-hook  manufacture.  Gartner 
Mound,  Ohio. 

ilrjrj 

FIG.  548.  (S.  i -i.)  Typical  fish-hooks  found  in  the  Baum  Village-Site,  Ohio. 


144      THE   STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  549.  (S.  about  1-3.)  Andover  collection.  The  long  bones  of  large  animals  were 
cut  or  sawed  into  proper  lengths,  the  openings  in  the  ends  enlarged  and  flint  knives  in 
serted.  This  figure  presents  eight  such  tool-handles.  The  two  at  the  top  were  found  in  a 
gravel-pit  in  central  Ohio,  together  with  human  skeletons.  Flint  knives  lay  at  the  end  of 
each  of  these  two  bones.  The  decayed  bone  shown  in  the  lower  part  of  the  picture  was 
also  found  in  a  gravel  burial  and  a  slender  flint  knife  rested  against  it.  The  position  of 
the  knives  and  the  bones  leaves  me  to  conclude  that  these  bones  were  knife-handles. 


OBJECTS   OF   BONE 


145 


FIG.  550.  (S.  1-3.)  Bone  tool-handles  from  the  villages  along  the  Upper  Missouri  River. 

Andover  collection. 


146      THE   STONE   AGE   IN    NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  551.  (S.  1-3.)  A  series  of  bone  celts  from  the  Mandan  Site,  North  Dakota. 


OBJECTS   OF   BONE 


FlG.  552.  (S.  1-2.)  Bone  objects   from    Mandan   Sites.    Portions  of  head-dresses. 

(See  page  154.) 


148      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

Fig.  546  is  interesting  in  that  it  shows  not  only  bone  beads  to 
the  left,  but  also  three  bone  arrow-points  (top  row  in  the  centre) 
and  fish-hooks  in  process  of  manufacture.  Professor  William  C. 
Mills  published  a  valuable  paper  on  the  manufacture  of  fish-hooks.1 


FlG.  552^4.    (S.   1-3.)   How  the  Mandans  made  bracelets  and  headdresses. 
(See  pages  154,  155.) 

Professor  Mills  found  in  the  ash-beds  of  the  Baum  Village-Site 
bones  which  had  been  cut  down  until  a  narrow  rim  on  both  sides 
remained.  I  show  Professor  Mills's  finds  in  Figs.  547-48. 

ProfessorMills's  finds  of  unfinished  as  well  as  completed  fish-hooks 
enabled  his  museum  to  secure  the  best  series  of  such  objects  in  the 
United  States. 

Having  split  the  bones  and  ground  them  down  until  they  were 
thin,  the  Indians  would  cut  through  the  objects  near  either  end, 

1   Report  for  the  year  1906,  of  the  Ohio  State  Archaeological  and  Historical  Society. 


OBJECTS   OF   BONE  149 

thus  producing  from  a  split  bone  two  fish-hooks.  Or,  the  entire 
bone  yielded  four  fish-hooks.  One  side  is  cut  long,  the  other  short, 
thus  forming  the  shank  and  bar.  In  Fig.  546  the  entire  process  is 
shown.  The  split  bone,  to  the  right,  the  broken  bone  above  the 
perfect  fish-hook.  To  complete  fish-hooks  it  was  necessary  to  round 


FIG.  553.  (S.  1-2.)  Mandan  bone  ornaments. 

the  base,  sharpen  the  point,  cut  out  a  little  more  space  between  the 
shank  and  the  point,  and  notch  the  shank  in  order  that  the  line 
might  be  attached. 

Mandan  Bone  Implements 

Something  over  twenty  years  ago,  when  I  was  living  in  Ohio,  I 
received  a  communication  from  Mr.  E.  R.  Steinbrueck  of  Mandan, 


150      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

North  Dakota.  He  wished  to  begin  the  study  of  American  archae 
ology,  to  devote  special  attention  to  the  ancient  village-site  of  the 
Mandan  Indians,  made  famous  by  George  Catlin's  paintings  and 
descriptions.  I  wrote  to  Mr.  Steinbrueck  a  number  of  letters  ad 
vising  him.  During  the  ensuing  years,  Mr.  Steinbrueck  spent  many 
seasons  in  the  exploration  of  the  Mandan  and  other  sites.  His  col- 


FIG.  554.  (S.  1-3.)  Mandan  bone  objects.  This  figure  repre 
sents  some  perforated  bones  from  Mandan  sites.  Many  similar 
to  these  have  been  found  at  Madisonville.  The  holes  are 
polished  on  the  edges,  and  aside  from  the  theory  that  they 
were  used  to  straighten  arrow-shafts,  no  one  seems  to  know 
the  exact  purpose  of  them.  A  few  are  shown  in  Fig.  555.  Pea- 
body  Museum  collection,  from  Madisonville,  Ohio. 

lection  of  bone  and  stone  implements,  amounted  to  about  8000 
specimens. 

Mr.  Steinbrueck  wished  to  have  his  collection  preserved  in  a 
fire-proof  building,  and  as  it  was  through  me  he  began  collecting, 
he  wished  Phillips  Academy  to  purchase  his  exhibit.  Through  the 
kindness  of  Professor  Edward  H.  Williams,  Jr.,  of  Woodstock,  Ver 
mont,  this  disposition  of  the  collection  was  brought  about,  and 
the  collection  is  to-day  on  exhibition  in  our  museum.  I  call  par 
ticular  attention  to  this  Mandan  exhibit,  for  the  reason  that  it  is, 
so  far  as  I  am  aware,  the  best  and  largest  collection  of  bone  imple 
ments  exhumed  from  one  site,  in  America. 

Suitable  stone  seems  to  have  been  scarce  in  the  Mandan  country, 
and  the  natives  made  use  of  the  shoulder  blades,  ribs,  and  other 
heavy  bones  of  buffalo,  elk,  and  deer  for  various  purposes,  and 


OBJECTS   OF   BONE  151 

these  strong  bones  served  them  quite  as  well  as  would  stone.  An 
inspection  of  the  illustrations  of  various  Mandan  objects  will  ac 
quaint  readers  with  the  wealth  of  material  secured  by  Mr.  Stein- 
brueck. 

I  call  particular  attention  to  Figs.  550  to  555.  In  Fig.  550  are 
shown  heavy  bone  handles  in  which  were  inserted  small  stone  celts 
employed  as  scraping-  and  cutting-tools.  This  type  was  common 
on  the  Plains  and  has  been  described  by  Professor  Mason  and 
others.  The  handle  is  so  strong  that  it  would  last  almost  a  life- 


FIG.  555.  (S.  1-5.)  This  presents  a  bone  hairpin, 
a  fish-hook,  a  flute  and  harpoon,  two  bone  celts,  a 
perforated  antler  of  an  elk,  and  a  long  bone  par 
tially  cut  into  bits,  all  of  which  were  found  in  the 
graves  at  Madison ville,  Ohio.  Peabody  Museum 
collection,  Cambridge,  Massachusetts. 

time,  and  the  Indian  women  needed  but  to  sharpen  the  inserted  celt, 
rather  than  to  make  a  new  handle. 

The  figure  of  the  bone  celts  (551)  shows  that  nearly  all  of  them 
were  hollowed  after  the  manner  of  Eastern  stone  gouges.  The 
second  specimen  from  the  top  is  highly  polished  on  the  edge  and 
there  are  eight  places  where  notches  have  been  worn  into  the  bone. 
Similar  wearing  is  noticed  on  the  lower  specimens. 

The  Mandans  raised  much  corn,  beans,  and  squashes,  and  the 
large  shoulder  blades  of  the  buffalo  and  elk  were  made  use  of  by 


152      THE   STONE   AGE    IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  556.  (S.  1-2.)  Mandan  bone  ornaments. 

these  Indians  as  spades  and  hoes.  There  are  more  than  one  hun 
dred  of  them  in  our  collection. 

Mr.  Steinbrueck,  at  my  request,  wrote  me  at  considerable  length 
and  sent  me  several  books  of  field-notes.  Particularly  interesting 
are  his  descriptions  of  objects  shown  in  Figs.  552,  552/1,  and  553. 
I  quote  from  his  letter:  - 

11  After  a  number  of  years  of  continuous  researches  in  the  an 
cient  Indian  village-sites  on  or  about  the  Heart  River  and  along 


OBJECTS   OF   BONE  153 

the  Missouri  River,  I  have  gradually  learned  to  read  the  pur 
pose,  the  use,  and  also,  in  some  instances,  the  manufacture  of 
certain  horn  and  bone  implements  and  ornaments  of  the  Mandan 
Indians." 

It  would  appear  that  the  late  J.  V.  Brower  and  Rev.  G.  L.  Wilson 
and  Mr.  Steinbrueck  made  explorations  in  common  during  several 
seasons. 

".  .  .  On  our  sociable  excursions,  we  used  to  find  three-cornered 
pieces  of  elk-horn  (Fig.  552)  which  showed  considerable  work. 


FIG.  557.   (S.  1-2.)    Bone  ornaments    and    effigies.    Three  of  these  may  represent  goose 
heads.    The  bone  to  the  right  is  ridged,  and  on  the  elevation  are  notches. 

They  were  long  and  pointed,  had  a  round  base,  showed  the  incision 
of  a  sharp  instrument  along  the  edges,  were  scraped  at  both  sides; 
in  short,  seemed  to  be  shaped  for  some  purpose,  which  we  could 
not  guess.  Probably  they  were  intended  for  some  kind  of  an  awl,  or 
some  other  object  of  use  or  ornament.  It  was  strange,  though,  that 
we  found  such  quantities  of  them  and  all  in  the  same  state  of  more 
or  less  finish,  and  still  we  never  found  an  implement  of  a  shape 
similar  to  these  peculiar  triangular  pieces  of  horn.  We  called  them 
'unfinished  implements  of  horn,  purpose  unknown." 

After  Mr.  Brower  returned  East,  and   Rev.  Mr.  Wilson  moved 
away   from    Mandan,    Mr.   Steinbrueck   continued   investigations, 


154      THE   STONE   AGE   IN    NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  558.  (S.  3-4.)  Teeth  of  the  opossum  and  raccoon.    Harness  Mound,  Ohio. 

and  after  several  years  had  passed,  came  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  triangular  pieces  were  discarded  objects,  obtained  during  the 
process  of  manufacture  of  other  forms.  Mr.  Steinbrueck  has 
drawn  a  series  of  outlines  conveying  his  ideas  as  to  the  manufac 
ture  of  these  objects,  which  I  reproduce  in  Fig.  552  A.  Reference 
to  the  letters  in  Fig.  552  A  will  make  clear  Mr.  Steinbrueck's  con 
tentions. 

"The  part  of  the  elk-horn  for  the  bracelets  was  chosen  just  above 
the  first  prong  (a).  The  horn  was  scraped  all  around  to  a  smooth 
surface.  Next,  incisions  were  made  with  a  flint  knife,  parallel  to 
each  other,  up  and  down  the  horn,  to  the  soft  inside  of  the  horn. 
Thus  long  narrow  strips  (b)  were  formed,  which  were  easily  (c) 
loosened  from  the  stem.  Next,  the  inside  was  smoothed  down  and 


FIG.  559.  (S.  2-3.)  To  the 
left  in  Fig.  559  is  an  arrow- 
point  made  of  deer-horn,  with 
a  perforation  for  attachment 
to  the  shaft.  The  other  two 
are  pendants  made  of  ocean 
shell.  These  are  from  the 
Baum  Village-Site,  Ohio. 


FIG.  560.    (S.  1-3.) 

Shell  crescent.    Gartner  Mound,  Ohio.    These 
three  figures  are  from  the  collection  of  W.  C.  Mills. 


OBJECTS   OF    BONE 


155 


the  edges  rounded  off.  Then,  on  the  inside  generally,  not  always, 
a  groove  was  cut  for  the  easier  bending  (a).  The  measure  of  the  arm 
or  wrist  was  taken  and  a  hole  bored  at  each  end  according  to  size 
of  arm  or  wrist,  and  above  the  holes  the  bracelet  was  cut  (e).  We 
found  an  abundance  of  those  short  pieces  (/).  Then  finally,  there 
remained  nothing  to  be  done  but  soak  the  straight  bracelet  piece, 
maybe  in  hot  bear-grease,  and  bend  it.  Most  of  the  bracelets  (g) 
are  made  in  that  shape  and  manner.  There  are  also  thinner,  nar- 


FIG.  561.  (S.  2-3.)  Bear-tusks  in  which  pearl  beads  were  inserted  as  ornaments.  These 
are  cut  and  polished,  the  bases  being  cut  squarely  off  or  diagonally,  for  what  purpose  is 
unknown.  These  specimens  were  found  in  various  mounds,  Ross  County,  Ohio,  as  were 
several  other  objects  illustrated  in  this  chapter. 

rower  ones,  without  a  groove  and  ornamented  at  the  ends  or  in 
cised  (i-i),  maybe  for  the  purpose  of  tying  together.  One  of  the 
necklaces  I  found,  and  which  is  among  the  specimens  at  Phillips 
Academy,  represents  a  snake,  one  end  showing  the  head,  the  other 
end  the  tail.  Perfect  horn  bracelets  are  very  scarce,  owing  to  their 
fragility.  The  first  I  found  was  broken  in  many  pieces.  I  gave  it 
to  Mr.  Brower,  who  was  much  exalted  over  it,  saying  that  that 
was  the  first  complete  bracelet  he  ever  saw;  and  although  broken, 
it  is  now  restored.  It  is  erroneous  and  was  a  mistake  to  state  that 
bracelets  were  made  from  ribs  of  small  animals.  A  test  will  prove 
the  truth  of  my  statement,  that  they  all  are  made  from  horn  and 
particularly  from  the  elk-horn. 

'The  manufacture  of  headgear  from  the  buffalo,  or  the  elk-horn, 


156      THE   STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

was  brought  about  in  the  same  manner.  The  buffalo-horn  or  the 
elk-horn  was  incised,  after  shaving  smooth,  from  top  to  bottom,  or 
vice  versa,  one  incision  opposite  the  other,  thus  forming  two  exact 
counterparts.  Then  they  were  cut  or  ornamented  to  fit  the  head 


FIG.  562.  (S.  i -i.)  Dug  up  by  W.  C.  Mills  from  Ohio  mounds, 
as  were  the  specimens  shown  in  Figs.  558  to  565. 

and   the  taste  of  the  wearer.   The   pieces  were  scraped  thin  and 
smooth  from  both  sides,  and  then  polished." 

I  shall  conclude  the  chapter  on  bone  objects  with  some  remarks 
from  Mr.  Charles  E.  Brown,  concerning  the  distribution  of  bone 
implements  in  the  Wisconsin-Michigan  region:  — 

'The  largest  local  collection  of  bone  implements  is  that  of  Mr. 
5.  D.  Mitchell  of  Green  Lake.  It  includes  harpoon-heads,  awls, 
tubes,  and  other  articles  obtained  from  a  so-called  'sacred  spring' 
into  which  it  is  thought  that  these  and  other  objects  w*ere  cast  by 


OBJECTS  OF   BONE 


157 


FIG.  563.  (S.  I -i.)  Cut  bear-tusks,  and  tusks  in  which  pearl  beads 
are  inserted.  From  Ohio  mounds. 

early  savages,  probably  for  the  purpose  of  propitiating  some  evil 
spirit  supposed  to  dwell  therein. 

"  Bone  implements  and  ornaments  of  these  and  other  classes  have 
also  been  recovered  from  various  village-sites,  refuse-heaps,  and 
mounds.  Bone  awls  are  the  most  numerous.  Among  these  are  a  few 
bone  beads,  scrapers,  and  needles.  Two  ribbons,  probably  those  of 


158      THE  STONE  AGE   IN  NORTH  AMERICA 


FIG.  564.    (S.  3-4.)    Engraved  bone, 
Harness  Mound,  Ohio. 


FIG.  565.    (S.  i -i.)    Engraved  bone, 
Hopewell  Mound,  Ohio. 


OBJECTS   OF   BONE 


159 


the  moose,  were  obtained  from  a  mound  at  Eagle  Corners.  Both  arc 
transversely  notched  by  cuts  along  one  edge.  One  bears  thirty- 
four  cuts,  the  other  thirty-three.  The  most  casual  examination  .  .  . 
reveals  the  evidence  of  rubbing  over  the  projections  between  the 
notches.  Dr.  Frederick  Starr,  who  has  described  these  specimens, 
refers  to  them  as  *  rattles,'  and  states  that  'they  not  only  might 
have  been  used  for  dance- timing,  but  were  certainly  soused.'  *  It 
is  probable  that  some  of  our  native  copper  perforators  were  once 
mounted  in  bone  or  antler  handles.  The 
Winnebago  Indians  still  occasionally  mount 
wire  nails  in  handles  of  bone  for  use  as  perfo 
rators  in  sewing  buckskin.  Bone  awls  are  also 
occasionally  found  in  use  among  these  Indians 
and  the  local  Chippewa.  Medicine-tubes  made 
of  sections  of  bone  or  horn  were  formerly  em 
ployed.  Pendants  made  of  the  perforated  can 
ine  teeth  of  the  bear  are  occasionally  found  in 
graves  and  on  camp-sites.  Mr.  Richard  Herr 
mann  of  Dubuque  has  reported  the  finding  of 
two  combination  bone  knives  and  spoons,  sev 
eral  awls  and  arrow-points,  two  eagle  claw  or 
naments,  a  bone  needle  with  part  of  the  eye 


FIG.  566.  (S.  i-i.)  En 
graved  bone,  Hopewell 
Mound. 


FIG.  567.   (S.  i-i.)  Bone  effigy,  Hopewell  Mound, 
Ohio. 


Proceedings  of  the  Davenport  Academy  of  Science,  vol.  ix,  pp.  181-183. 


1 60      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

intact,  and  a  musical  instrument  from  a  mound  near  Garner,  in 
Grant  County." 

Dr.  W.  J.  Hoffmann  mentions  the  former  use  of  bone  fish-hooks 
and  notched  bone  arrow-shaft  smoothers  among  the  Wisconsin 
Menomini.  For  evening  strands  of  basswood  fibre  in  cord-making, 
these  Indians  use  the  perforated  shoulder  blade  of  a  deer  or  other 
animal.1 

"Radisson  found  that  the  early  Bceuf  Sioux  of  the  upper  Missis 
sippi  Valley  tipped  their  arrows  with  antler  points.  A  few  antler 
arrow-points  have  been  found  in  Wisconsin.  These  are  similar  to 
those  recovered  in  Ohio  during  the  recent  explorations  of  Dr.  W7.  C. 
Mills.  In  the  H.  P.  Hamilton  collection  is  a  portion  of  an  antler 
which  is  ornamented  with  incised  designs.  It  was  found  in  the  city 
of  Manitowoc.  In  the  same  collection  is  a  small  human  effigy  carved 
from  a  piece  of  antler.  Other  antler  objects'  found  in  Wisconsin 
include  awls,  a  pendant,  a  tube,  and  several  articles  the  exact  func 
tion  of  which  is  still  undetermined.  Cut  sections  of  antler  are  oc 
casionally  found  on  local  village-sites.  In  the  collection  of  Mr.  J.  P. 
Schumacher,  at  Green  Bay,  is  a  pipe  made  of  the  tip  of  a  buffalo- 
horn.  On  its  surface  are  several  incised  figures.  Pieces  of  the  tusk 
of  a  mammoth  were  obtained  with  other  articles  in  a  Grant  County 
mound.  Doubtless  a  much  larger  number  of  both  bone  and  antler 
implements  will  yet  be  found  in  Wisconsin.  Local  archaeologists 
have  but  recently  turned  their  attention  to  these." 

i  Fourteenth  Annual  Report,  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology. 


CHAPTER   XXX 

OBJECTS    OF    COPPER 

MR.  CHARLES  E.  BROWN,  Dean  of  the  Museum  of  the  Wiscon 
sin  Historical  Society,  Madison,  has  prepared  for  me  this  chapter 
on  copper  objects.  Mr.  Brown's  long  association  with  the  Mil 
waukee  Public  Museum,  and  his  knowledge  of  copper  collections 
throughout  the  United  States,  have  made  him  an  authority  on  this 
subject. 

I  have  added  a  few  concluding  paragraphs  to  Mr.  Brown's  able 
paper. 

The  Native  Copper  Implements  of  Wisconsin 

The  number  of  native  copper  articles  already  recovered  from 
Wisconsin  fields,  village-sites,  mounds,  and  graves  is  very  large, 
possibly  exceeding  that  already  obtained  from  the  balance  of  the 
United  States.  A  careful  estimate  places  the  total  number  of  such 
articles  collected  in  the  state  up  to  the  present  time  at  not  less  than 
twenty  thousand. 

Although  the  collecting  of  these  implements  in  Wisconsin  has 
already  continued  for  nearly  forty  years  the  supply  has  not  yet 
become  exhausted. 

The  opening  to  cultivation  of  new  lands  in  the  central  and  north 
ern  portions  of  the  state,  the  increase  in  the  number  of  collectors,  and 
the  more  careful  examination  of  old  sites,  cause  each  passing  year 
to  add  its  large  number  to  the  total  already  in  collections. 

In  an  address  delivered  in  1876  before  the  Wisconsin  Historical 
Society,  Professor  James  D.  Butler  made  the  statement  that  the 
Society  was  then  the  proud  possessor  of  109  native  copper  imple 
ments.  The  Smithsonian  Institution  then  owned  30  specimens; 
the  Wisconsin  Natural  History  Society  of  Milwaukee,  14;  Dr.  In 
crease  A.  Lapham,  n;  Milton  College,  4;  and  Beloit  College,  i.  At 
the  present  clay  there  are  in  the  combined  collections  of  the  State 
Historical  Museum,  Logan  Museum  at  Beloit,  Milwaukee  Public 
Museum,  and  of  Mr.  H.  P.  Hamilton  and  of  Mr.  S.  D.  Mitchell 
nearly  four  thousand  specimens. 


162      THE   STONE  AGE   IN    NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  568.   (S.  1-4.)  A  group  of  copper  nuggets  and  implements  owned  by 
S.  D.  Mitchell,  Ripon,  Wisconsin. 


OBJECTS   OF   COPPER 


163 


FIG.  569.   (S.  5-8.)   Copper  beads  and  small  cylinders.   Collection  of   S.  D. 
Mitchell,  Ripon,  Wisconsin. 


164      THE  STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH  AMERICA 

A  very  large  number  of  other  specimens  are  in  other  public  and 
private  collections  in  Wisconsin  and  other  states.  To  the  activity 
of  the  Wisconsin  Archaeological  Society  and  of  its  members  is  due 
the  very  great  increase  in  recent  years  of  the  number  of  copper 
implements  in  local  educational  institutions. 


FIG.  570.  (S.  2-3.)  Copper  gorget,  \V.  H.  Ellsworth's  collection.  Copperheads, 
H.  P.  Hamilton's  collection.  The  gorget  came  from  the  banks  of  Silver  Lake, 
Kenosha  County,  Wisconsin. 


OBJECTS   OF   COPPER  165 

There  is  evidence  to  show  that  in  pioneer  days  a  very  consider 
able  number  of  such  implements,  their  value  being  unappreciated, 
found  their  way  into  the  hands  of  roving  pedlers  and  junk  dealers 
and  afterwards  into  the  founder's  crucible.  In  several  institutions 
are  implements  which  have  been  rescued  from  such  a  fate. 

Others  have  been  found  useful  by  their  original  finders  and  wholly 
or  partially  destroyed. 

I  continue:  The  conclusion  now  universally  accepted  among 
archaeologists  is  that  there  is  no  reason  for  attributing  the  work 
ing  of  the  copper  deposits  or  fabrication  of  the  implements  to  any 


»  I 


FIG.  571.   (S.  1-2.)   Copper  and  stone  pendants  from  the  cemetery  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Wabash.   Andover  collection. 

other  people  than  the  Indians.  The  early  explorers  found  both  the 
northern  and  southern  tribes  in  this  country  using  implements  and 
ornaments  of  native  copper  often  in  common  with  those  of  stone. 
From  South  America  almost  to  Canada  various  travellers  refer  to 
this  metal  being  in  the  possession  of  or  employed  by  the  natives. 
Many  of  these  accounts  have  been  so  often  quoted  by  writers  on 
North  American  archaeology  that  they  are  entirely  familiar  to  the 
student,  and  there  is  therefore  no  necessity  of  repeating  them 
here.  There  is  no  doubt  that  some  of  these  accounts  refer  to  Eu 
ropean  metal  obtained  from  earlier  visitors  or  traders,  or  possibly 
from  shipwrecks  along  the  coast.  Thus  the  natives  soon  became  quite 
proficient  in  fashioning  it  into  articles  adapted  or  better  adapted 
to  their  needs  than  the  ruder  articles  which  they  then  employed. 


166      THE   STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  572.  (S.  1-2.)  Copper  ornament 
and  discs  from  the  Hopewell  Group, 
Ohio. 

fore,  was  discontinued  before 
the  coming  of  the  white  man, 
or  whether  the  industry  was 
continued  or  at  least  to  some 
extent  resumed  by  the  de 
scendants  of  the  pre-Colum 
bian  miners  and  artificers 
during  and  after  his  intru 
sion,  is  still  in  dispute.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  this  matter 
will  ever  be  satisfactorily  set 
tled. 

The  accounts  of  the  Jesu 
its,  as  given  in  the  "  Rela 
tions,"  give  the  impression 
that  while  the  Wisconsin  In 
dians  of  that  period  were 
evidently  familiar  writh  the 
sources  of  the  metal,  they 
regarded  it  with  superstition 
and  employed  it  only  in  a 
reverential  way.  Radisson, 
however,  found  native  copper 
ornaments  in  use  among  the 
Bceuf  (or  Buffalo)  band  of 


It  is  equally  certain  that 
other  accounts  refer  to  the 
native  metal  or  to  objects 
fashioned  therefrom. 

Whether  the  working  of  the 
copper  deposits  or  the  fabrica 
tion  of  copper  implements  in 
this  section  of  the  country, 
thought  to  have  been  begun 
at  least  several  centuries  be- 


.  573-  (S.  7-8.)  Copper  axe,  Harness  Mound, 
Ohio.  Professor  Mills  states:  "This  axe  was 
taken  from  a  mound  belonging  to  a  group  eight 
miles  south  of  Chillicothe.  Both  sides  of  the 
object  are  greatly  corroded  and  covered  with  a 
finely  woven  fabric.  Beneath  the  fabric  there 
seems  to  have  been  the  skin  of  some  short-haired 
animal.  The  axe  was  found  near  the  left  knee  of 
an  uncremated  skeleton." 


OBJECTS   OF   COPPER  167 

Dakota,  in  Minnesota  in  1661-62.  Alexander  Henry,  as  a  result 
of  his  visit  to  Lake  Superior  in  a  later  day,  stated  that  the  Indians 
there  obtained  copper  for  the  manufacture  of  implements  and  orna 
ments.  In  recent  times,  Indian  agents  testified  to  the  use  of  cop 
per  implements  among  the  Wisconsin  Winnebago  and  Chippewa. 
Native  copper  implements  have  also  occasionally  been  recovered 
from  local  mounds,  where  they  were  found  in  association  with  metal 
kettles,  glass  beads,  and  other  articles  of  European  manufacture. 


FIG.  574.  (S.  about  i-i.)  From  a  mound  on  the  banks  of  Black  Snake  River,  Utah. 
Milwaukee  Public  Museum  collection. 


1 68       THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 


The  evidence  of  the  mounds  and  of  the  earlier  village-sites  is  to 
the  effect  that  before  the  coming  of  white  man  the  use  of  copper 
had  become  quite  general  among  the  Indian  tribes  of  the  upper 
Mississippi  Valley. 

It  is  very  probable  that  the  native  metal  first  became  known  to 
them  through  the  accidental  discovery  of  small  nuggets  among  the 
debris  of  the  glaciers,  and  as  it  quickly  came 
into  demand,  was  traced  to  its  source  in  the 
Lake  Superior  region.  These  deposits  they 
mined,  cutting  it  into  shapes  convenient  for 


FIG.  575.   (S.  1-4.)   Copper  spuds  or  axes.    Collection  of 
Logan  Museum,  Beloit,  Wisconsin. 


FIG.  576.  (S.  about  1-3.) 
Collection  of  S.  D.  Mitch 
ell,  Ripon,  Wisconsin. 


transportation  to  their  villages,  where  it  was  fashioned  into  articles 
for  their  own  use,  or  for  the  purpose  of  trade  with  distant  tribes. 

Nowhere  in  this  entire  valley  do  copper  implements,  however, 
appear  to  have  entirely  replaced  those  of  stone,  the  use  of  which 
was  continued  until  quite  recent  times.  The  manufacture  of  copper 
implements  doubtless  extended  through  several  centuries.  The 
Siouan  Winnebago  and  Dakota  of  Wisconsin,  being  nearest  the 
source  of  supply,  possessed  of  course  the  greatest  quantity.  Even 
among  them  the  use  of  copper  artifacts  did  not  in  prehistoric  times 
equal  the  use  of  others.  Among  the  outlying  tribes  in  other  states 
copper  implements  were  yet  probably  somewhat  of  a  luxury,  when 
the  intrusion  of  the  Algonquian  tribes  into  Wisconsin  made  more  and 


OBJECTS   OF   COPPER 


169 


FIG.  577.   (S.  5-1 1.)   Copper  awls  and  chisels.    Collection  of  S.  D.  Mitchell,  Ripon, 

Wisconsin. 


170      THE   STONE   AGE    IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  578.  (S.  1-4.)  Copper  axes.  H.  P.  Hamilton's  collection,  Two  Rivers,  Wisconsin. 


more  difficult,  and  finally  altogether  shut  out  access  to  the  Lake 
Superior  mines.  It  appears  certain  that  the  Chippewa  after  their 
occupation  of  the  copper  region,  did  do  at  least  a  small  amount  of 
digging  for  the  metal  which  for  purposes  of  trade,  or  for  other  uses, 
they  found  of  value.  This  continued  until  the  arrival  of  the  traders 
laden  with  desirable  articles  caused  a  suspension  of  mining  opera 
tions,  and  diverted  the  attention  of  the  Indian  from  mining  to 
other  pursuits.  *  : 


OBJECTS   OF   COPPER 


171 


FIG.  579.  (S.  about  1-2.)  Copper  chisels;  the  left  and  central  ones  were 
found  near  Clintonville,  \Vaupaca  County,  Wisconsin.  The  right-hand  one, 
near  Chilton,  Calumet  County,  Wisconsin.  Milwaukee  Public  Museum 
collection. 


172      THE   STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

Fabrication 

Our  native  copper  implements  were  fashioned  by  being  ham 
mered  into  shape  while  the  metal  was  in  a  cold  or  heated  state  with 
such  rude  implements  as  were  at  the  command  of  the  natives,  the 
finishing  touches  being  given  by  cutting  and  trimming  the  uneven 
edges  with  sharp  flints  and  smoothing  the  surfaces  by  rubbing  or 
grinding  with  stones.  Successful  experiments  in  reproducing  the 
various  forms  of  implements  from  the  native  or  nodular  copper  by 


FIG.  580.   (S.  about  1-4.)  Three  copper  punches  and  seven  chisels.    H.  P. 
Hamilton's  collection,  Two  Rivers,  Wisconsin. 


OBJECTS   OF   COPPER 


173 


these  primitive  processes  have  been  made  by  the  late  Frank  H. 
dishing,  and  by  other  archaeologists.  Mr.  Gerard  Fowke  is  author 
ity  for  the  following  statement  :  - 

"So  far  as  its  working  qualities  are  concerned,  copper  at  ordinary 
temperature  is  much  more  malleable  than  pure  soft  iron;  and  it  is 
much  more  easily  worked  into  shape  when  at  a  red  heat  than  when 


FIG.  581.   (S.  1-5.)   Collection  of  J.  T.  Rceder,  Houghton,  Michigan.   13  copper 
spuds,  4  pick-pointed  knives,  4  knives.  All  except  one  from  Michigan. 

cold.  If  hammered  cold  it  must  be  annealed  occasionally,  otherwise 
it  becomes  brittle.  It  is  somewhat  hardened  by  pounding,  which 
will  account  for  the  harder  edge  of  celts  and  other  aboriginal  speci 
mens  beaten  out  thin."1 

The  theory  that  any  of  these  implements  may  have  been  cast  is 
now  discarded   by   archaeologists.    There  is  no  evidence   to  show 

1  Archaeological  History  of  Ohio,  p.  712. 


174       THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH    AMERICA 

that  our  local  aborigines  possessed  any  knowledge  of  the  working 
of  this  metal  in  the  broad  sense. 

"Even  if  copper  could  be  melted  in  an  open  fire,  which  is  very 
doubtful,  it  must  not  be  overlooked  that  Indians  had  no  materials 
of  which  to  make  crucibles  or  moulds  capable  of  withstanding  such 
heat.  Admitting  they  had  clay  receptacles  which  would  have 
answered  these  purposes,  there  is  no  way  of  handling  the  molten 
metal  with  safety."1 

While  it  is  probable  that  many  copper  implements  were  fabri 
cated  in  the  vicinity  of  the  workings,  it  is  now  perfectly  clear  that 
fragments  of  the  native  ore  were  also  carried  away  to  be  cut  up  and 
fashioned  into  implements  elsewhere.  The  possession  of  such  masses 
by  the  aborigines  was  noted  by  the  early  explorers  and  mission 
aries.  On  the  extensive  village-sites  at  Two  Rivers,  Sheboygan, 
Green  Lake,  and  elsewhere  have  been  obtained  numerous  small 
chips,  scales,  and  fragments  of  copper,  plainly  indicating  that  the 
manufacture  of  implements  was  carried  on  there.  Elsewhere  in 
the  state  have  been  found  lumps  of  the  metal  exhibiting  tool-marks, 
and  other  indications  of  working. 

Distribution 

To  fully  discuss  this  phase  of  the  subject  would  require  many 
pages.  The  student  must  therefore  content  himself  with  such  in 
formation  as  can  be  condensed  into  a  comparatively  limited  space. 

Implements  and  ornaments  of  native  copper  are  distributed 
commonly  or  sparingly  throughout  a  large  portion  of  the  eastern 
half  of  the  United  States  and  in  some  states  west  of  the  Mississippi 
River.  Outside  of  our  own  state,  numbers  of  them  have  been  re 
covered  in  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Illinois,  Ohio,  and  West  Virginia,  and 
also  from  the  mounds  and  stone  graves  and  village-sites  in  the 
states  of  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  North  Carolina,  and  Georgia.  Mr. 
Clarence  B.  Moore,  whose  explorations  have  been  very  extensive, 
has  reported  their  existence  in  the  mounds  of  Florida  and  elsewhere 
in  the  extreme  South.  From  five  mounds  on  the  St.  John's  River 
in  Florida  he  obtained  ornaments  of  sheet-copper  with  repousse 
designs,  beads  of  sheet-copper,  beads  of  wood,  shell,  and  limestone 
copper  coated,  copper  effigies  of  the  turtle  and  the  serpent,  and  pierc 
ing  implements  of  copper.  Dr.  C.  C.  Abbott  long  ago  recorded 
the  existence  of  copper  implements  in  the  Delaware  Valley. 

1  Archceological  History,  p.  713. 


OBJECTS   OF   COPPER 


175 


FIG.  582.  (S.  3-4.)  Copper  gouges.  The  one  to  the  left  was  found  near  Westford,  Dodge 
County,  Wisconsin.    The  one  to  the  right  was  found  near  Chilton,  Wisconsin. 


176      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FlG.  583.  (S.  i -i.)  Copper  spud  from  Mercer,  Iron  County,  Wisconsin.     Loaned  to  the 
Milwaukee  Public  Museum  by  Mr.  R.  L.  Ball. 

As  a  result  of  his  researches,  Rev.  W.  M.  Beauchamp   recently 
issued  under  the  auspices  of  the  University  of  the  State  of  New* 
York,  at  Albany,  two  finely  illustrated  bulletins,  one  descriptive  of 
the  metallic  implements  and  the  other  of  the  metallic  ornaments 
of  the  New  York  Indians. 

Professor  G.  H.   Perkins  states  that  objects  of   this  metal   are 


OBJECTS   OF   COPPER 


177 


FIG.  584.   (S.  5-6.)  Copper  axe.  Found  in  a  mound  on  Green  Bay  Road,  one 
mile  north  of  Milwaukee.   Milwaukee  Public  Museum  collection. 


178      THE   STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

far  more  numerous  in  New  England  than  those  of  bone  or  shell. 
They  are  found  not  only  on  the  surface,  but  in  the  graves  as  well. 
They  are  similar  in  form  to  Wisconsin  artifacts,  and  he  believes  it 
probable  that  all  are  made  of  metal  obtained  from  the  Lake  Su 
perior  district.  Dr.  David  Boyle  and  others  have  called  our  atten 
tion  to  the  presence  of  native  copper  implements  in  both  eastern 
and  western  Canada. 

There  is  no  longer  any  doubt  that  much  of  this  metal  was  thus 
distributed,  either  in  the  unworked  state  or  as  finished  artifacts,  in 
the  course  of  the  trades  or  regular  exchanges  known  to  have  been 
carried  on  between  the  aborigines  holding  possession  of  the  copper 
district  and  those  of  other  regions. 

A  description  of  the  Wisconsin  districts  from  which  the  greatest 
number  of  such  artifacts  have  been  recovered  up  to  the  present 
time  may  be  given  as  extending  from  about  the  middle  of  Mil 
waukee  County,  northward  along  the  west  shore  of  Lake  Michi 
gan  to  Door  County,  thence  westward  to  the  Wisconsin  River  or 
slightly  beyond,  thence  southward  along  this  stream  to  Dane  County 
and  eastward  to  Milwaukee  County,  the  starting-point.  Embraced 
within  this  territory  are  the  extensive  lake  shore  village-sites,  from 
which  thousands  of  articles  have  already  been  recovered,  and  cer 
tain  well-known  sites  in  Green  Lake  and  adjoining  counties,  the  Rush 
Lake,  Lake  Chetek,  and  similarly  productive  regions.  The  amount 
of  copper  implements  obtained  from  the  mounds  and  graves  of 
Wisconsin  is  very  small  when  compared  with  the  quantity  obtained 
from  the  village-sites  and  fields. 

Classes  and  Functions 

The  native  copper  artifacts  of  Wisconsin  admit  of  separation  into 
two  principal  classes,  designated  as  implements  and  ornaments. 
Of  these  the  former  class  is  by  far  the  more  numerous.  Mr.  Henry 
P.  Hamilton  estimates  that  articles  of  utility  constitute  fully  95 
per  cent  of  the  copper  artifacts  found  in  Wisconsin. 

It  is  but  natural  that  on  account  of  its  proximity  to  the  source 
of  supply  we  should  find  in  our  own  state  not  only  a  more  bountiful 
supply  of  implements,  but  a  greater  range  of  classes,  types,  and  va 
rieties  as  well.  The  correctness  of  this  conclusion  is  proven  beyond 
doubt.  In  the  matter  of  the  number  and  artistic  excellence  of  its 
copper  ornaments  and  objects  of  a  ceremonial  nature,  Wisconsin, 
while  possessing  some  types  apparently  peculiar  to  itself,  cannot 


OBJECTS   OF   COPPER 


FI(;-  585-   (S.  I -I.)   Copper  spud  with  incised  zigzag  decoration. 
Fond  du  Lac,  Wisconsin.  Milwaukee  Public  Museum  collection. 


1 8o      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

properly  be  said  to  lead.  The  artistically  cut  or  embossed  sheet- 
copper  discs,  gorgets,  and  plates,  the  spool-shaped  objects  and 
copper-sheathed  stone  and  wooden  ornaments  of  Ohio,  Illinois,  and 
the  South,  are  here  conspicuous  by  their  almost  total  absence. 

No  one  Wisconsin  collection  contains  all  of  the  classes  and  types 
of  the  implements  described  in  this  bulletin.  An  examination  of 
almost  any  local  copper  cabinet,  however  small,  is  almost  certain 
to  reveal  the  presence  of  some  object  that  is  original  or  peculiar; 
or  some  variation  of  a  well-known  type  not  elsewhere  to  be  seen. 
The  difficulties  attending  the  making  of  a  proper  classification 
are  therefore  apparent.  Especially  among  the  objects  classed  as 
arrow-  and  spear-points  the  number  of  well-established  types,  of 
varieties  and  infrequent  forms,  is  particularly  numerous.  In  a 
somewhat  lesser  degree  this  is  also  true  of  other  classes  of  imple 
ments. 

Among  spear-  and  arrow-points  especially,  there  appears  to  be 
a  gradual  development  from  the  primitive  leaf-shaped,  through  the 
stemmed,  to  the  numerous  and  well-executed  socketed  forms.  In 
this  case  the  important  element  in  the  transition  from  one  form  to 
another  is  in  the  manner  of  hafting.  A  gradual  transition  in  some 
instances  from  well-marked  types  of  one  class  into  those  of  an 
other  may  also  be  noted.  The  uses  of  many  of  these  implements, 
because  of  their  close  resemblance  to  modern  articles,  are  readily 
understood.  The  precise  function  of  others  is  not  so  readily  ascer 
tained. 

An  examination  of  a  large  series  of  any  of  these  should  convince 
us  that  each  had  its  special  function,  although  probably  also  em 
ployed  for  such  other  exigencies  as  might  arise. 

In  the  following  pages  the  various  classes  of  local  copper  imple 
ments  and  ornaments  are  described  and  such  information  and  sug 
gestions  concerning  their  workmanship,  purposes,  frequency,  and 
distribution  given  as  is  now  obtainable. 

Axes 

Large  numbers  of  these  implements  have  been  recovered  from 
Wisconsin  soil  and  are  to-day  represented  by  one  or  several  examples 
in  nearly  every  local  copper  collection.  They  vary  in  weight  from 
half  a  pound  to.  three  pounds,  rarely  more,  and  in  size  from  three  to 
ten  inches.  So  far  as  is  known  no  hafted  copper  axe  has  yet  been 
recovered.  Probably  the  usual  and  most  satisfactory  method  of 


OBJECTS   OF   COPPER 


181 


FIG.  586.   (S.  2-3.)   Copper  axe,  Washington  County,  Wisconsin.    Copper  chisel,  near 
Charleston,  Calumet  County,  Wisconsin. 


182      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

hafting  one  of  these  implements  was  to  insert  it  between  the  parts 
of  a  cleft  stick,  to  which  it  was  afterwards  secured  by  winding  the 
stick  above  and  below  it  with  strips  of  hide,  a  number  of  turns  being 
also  taken  around  or  across  it.  There  are  at  least  three  well-estab 
lished  types  of  these  implements,  which  may  be  briefly  described  as 
follows :  — 

1.  Those  which  are  oblong  or  nearly  oblong  in  outline,  having  the 
edges  parallel  or  nearly  so,  and  whose  breadth  is  such  as  to  exclude 
them  from  the  class  of  implements  known  as  chisels.    Specimens 
range  from  less  than  four  up  to  seven  or  more  inches  in  length. 
They  are  generally  of  nearly  uniform  thickness  throughout.     (See 
Figs.  576,  578.)    A  variety  of  the  above  type  has  the  margin  at  the 
edges  slightly  elevated,  thus  giving  a  depressed  or  concave  surface 
in  the  centre,  and  from  end  to  end,  on  one  or  both  broad  faces  of  the 
axe.    In  some  examples  this  margin  is  fully  one  half  inch  in  width 
at  or  near  the  middle  of  the  axe.  A  curious  feature  of  some  examples 
of  this  uncommon  form  is  the  concave  cutting  edge.   Such  implements 
are  to  be  seen  in  a  number  of  the  larger  public  and  private  collec 
tions  in  Wisconsin.   So  far  as  can  be  ascertained  no  examples  of  these 
curious  axes  have  been  obtained  in  surrounding  states,  where  the 
normal  form  also  occurs. 

2.  Axes  with  straight,   tapering  edges.  They  are  widest  at  the 
cutting  edge  and  become  gradually  narrower  towards  the  head, 
which  is  either  square,  rounded,  or  pointed.  The  cutting  edge  is 
straight  or  convex.   This  appears  to  be  the  most  common  type  of 
copper  axe.    The  largest  example  known  is  fourteen  inches  in  length 
and  the  smallest  only  two  inches.    The  large  specimen  comes  from 
Neillsville,  Clark  County,  and  is  in  the  State  Historical  Museum. 
(See  Fig.  578.) 

3.  A  third  and  less  frequent  type  has  the  edges  curving  equally 
from  the  cutting  edge  to  the  head.    Most  examples  are  quite  thin, 
broad  and  flat.    The  head  is  square  and  sometimes  nearly  as  broad 
as  the  cutting  edge.    By  reason  of  their  broad,  expanding  cutting 
edges,  some  of  these  axes  may  be  appropriately  described  as  bell- 
shaped.   Fine  specimens  of  this  type  are  to  be  seen  in  the  Milwaukee 
Public  Museum,  and  in  other  collections.    These  axes  approach  the 
modern  axes  in  form.    In  the  H.  P.  Hamilton  collection  is  a  notched 
copper  axe  which  comes  from  the  vicinity  of  Horicon.    It  is  rather 
rude  and  is  irregularly  oval  in  outline.    Mr.  M.  C.  Long  has  in  his 
Kansas  City  collection  the  only  grooved  copper  axe  known. 


OBJECTS   OF   COPPER 


183 


FIG.  587.  (S.  i-i.)  Copper  spud,  Island  Lake,  near  Gagan,  Oneida  County 
Wisconsin.  Milwaukee  Public  Museum  collection. 


1 84      THE   STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

Copper  axes  were  well  adapted  alike  for  peaceful  and  warlike  pur 
suits.  In  the  hands  of  the  Wisconsin  aborigines  they  were  undoubt 
edly  useful  implements,  superseding  at  best  the  clumsy  stone  axe 
or  hatchet,  and  possibly  being  in  their  turn  laid  aside  for  the  more 
serviceable  iron  axe  of  the  fur-trader. 

Employed  in  warfare  or  the  chase  they  would  be  terrible  weapons. 
As  tools  they  were  probably  especially  useful  in  the  felling  of  trees, 
the  shaping  of  log  canoes,  the  erection  of  dwellings,  barricades,  and' 
stockades. 

They  may  have  been  employed  in  connection  with  or  without  fire. 
It  has  been  suggested  that  some  of  the  smaller  implements  may  have 
served  as  wedges. 

Chisels.  (See  Figs.  577,  579,  580.) 

The  aboriginal  copper  implements  known  as  chisels  are  of  nearly 
as  frequent  occurrence  in  local  cabinets  as  the  implements  of  the 
foregoing  class.  In  the  H.  P.  Hamilton  collection  there  is  to  be  seen 
an  especially  fine  series  of  at  least  a  dozen  or  more  examples,  ranging 
in  size  from  five  to  fifteen  inches  and  in  weight  from  five  ounces  to 
five  and  three  fourths  pounds.  An  equally  fine  series  is  in  the  Field 
Museum. 

The  office  of  these  fine  implements  probably  included  the  excavat 
ing  of  wooden  canoes,  mortars,  and  other  vessels.  Their  employment 
in  connection  with  the  mining  operations  of  the  Indians  has  been 
mentioned.  Some  specimens  exhibit  upon  their  heads  the  flattening 
which  would  result  from  their  being  used  in  conjunction  writh  a 
wooden  mallet,  club,  stone,  or  other  weighty  object.  Others  show 
no  such  marks  and  were  probably  employed  without  such  agencies. 
Rev.  W.  M.  Beauchamp  states  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  copper 
articles  found  in  New  York  are  of  the  celt  (axe)  or  chisel  form.  Pro 
fessor  G.  H.  Perkins  has  described  similar  implements  from  New 
England.  At  least  three  distinct  types  of  these  implements  are 
known  to  occur  in  Wisconsin :  - 

i.  The  first  of  these  is  broadest  at  the  cutting  edge.  The  edges 
taper  gradually  upward  from  the  cutting  edge  to  a  pointed,  rounded, 
or  squared  head.  They  are  usually  thickest  at  or  below  the  middle, 
the  flat  or  convex  surface  sloping  toward  the  narrow  extremity. 
Some  of  these  have  the  upper  surface  convex  and  the  lower  surface 
flat.  The  broad  or  narrow  sides  may  be  either  convex  or  flat.  Fine 
implements  of  this  form  are  to  be  seen  in  the  H.  P.  Hamilton,  State 


OBJECTS  OF   COPPER 


185 


FIG.  588.  (S.  i-i.)  Back  view  of  Fig.  587.  Milwaukee  Public 
Museum  collection. 


i86      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

Historical  Museum,  and  other  local  collections.    A  few  approach 
fourteen  inches  in  length.    (See  Fig.  579.) 

2.  A  second  type  is  of  nearly  uniform  width  throughout,  with 
straight,  parallel  edges.   A  specimen  in  the  S.  D.  Mitchell  collection 
has  a  cutting  edge  at  either  extremity.    Implements  of  this  type 
are  to  be  seen  in  various  Wisconsin  cabinets.    They  range  from 
about  five  to  ten  or  more  inches  in  length,  and  from  one  and  one 
half  to  two  inches  in  width.    (See  Fig.  580.) 

3.  A  third  and  less  frequent  type  is  characterized  by  a  more  or 
less  prominent  median  ridge,  which  traverses  its  upper  surface  from 
within  an  inch  or  more  of  the  cutting  edge  to  the  opposite  extremity. 
From  this  ridge  the  surface  bevels  off  evenly  on  either  side  toward 
the  edge.  The  lower  surface  is  usually  flat,  thus  giving  a  triangular 
section.    The  edges  are  generally  parallel  for  at  least  three  quarters 
of  the  distance  back  from  the  cutting  edge,  whence  they  taper  or 
curve  gradually  to  the  rounded  head.  A  few  are  of  nearly  uniform 
width   throughout,  with  an  angular  or  squared  head.    Several  of 
these  implements  have  the  upper  extremity  abruptly  narrowed  and 
prolonged  into  a  short  tang,  as  if  intended  to  be  set  into  a  wooden 
handle.  A  few  are  curved  or  bowed  from  extremity  to  extremity. 
Some  specimens  have  an  expanded,  curved  cutting  edge.  One  of  the 
largest  of  these  ridged  chisels  is  fourteen  and  three  fourths  inches 
in  length.    It  is  in  the  H.  P.  Hamilton  collection  and  comes  from 
the  town  of  Oshkosh,  Winnebago  County.     (See  specimen  to  the 
left,  Fig.  579.) 

Spuds.   (See  Figs.  581,  583.) 

In  northwestern  Wisconsin  have  been  obtained  a  limited  number 
of  copper  implements  bearing  a  close  resemblance  in  form  to  some 
of  the  so-called  stone  spuds  or  spade-shaped  implements,  after  which 
they  were  probably  patterned.  They  are  rather  broad,  flat  imple 
ments,  of  nearly  uniform  thickness  throughout,  and  from  six  to  eight 
or  more  inches  in  length.  The  broad,  narrow  blades  are  semi 
circular  or  crescentic  in  outline.  From  them  the  handle  tapers  back 
ward  to  a  squared  or  slightly  rounded  extremity.  The  narrow  sides 
are  flattened.  The  author  is  indebted  to  Professor  T.  H.  Lewis  for 
sketches  and  information  in  regard  to  some  of  these,  which  were 
obtained  by  him  at  Lake  Chetek,  Barron  County,  Wisconsin;  at 
St.  Paul,  Minnesota,  and  at  Ontonagon,  Michigan. 

The  conclusion,  probably  correct,  in  regard  to  these  implements  is 


OBJECTS  OF   COPPER 


187 


FIG.  589.  (S.  6-7.)  Copper  spud  from  near  Pewau- 
kee  Lake,  Waukesha  County,  Wisconsin. 


FIG.  590.  (S.  3-5.)  Cop 
per  spear.  S.  D.  Mitchell's 
collection,  Ripon,  Wiscon 
sin. 


188      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

that  they  were  employed,  like  the  stone  and  modern  iron  implements 
which  they  resemble,  in  stripping  bark  from  trees  and  for  similar 
purposes. 

Gouges.  (See  Figs.  582,  585.) 

These  implements  are  closely  allied  to  the  chisels,  from  which  they 
are  distinguished  by  the  presence  on  their  lower  surface  of  a  con 
cavity  sometimes  reaching  quite  to  the  middle.  They  are  well 
adapted  for  working  out  rounded  or  oval  holes  or  hollows,  and  in 


FIG.  591.  (S.  about  i-i.)  Copper  spears.    Found  on  Bluff  Point,  near  Penn  Yan, 
New  York.    Collection  of  L.  G.  Ogden,  Penn  Yan,  New  York. 

Wisconsin  are  generally  considered  to  have  been  wood-working 
tools.  Elsewhere  they  were  probably  also  employed  like  the  more 
common  stone  gouges  in  quarrying  and  working  steatite,  catlinite, 
and  similar  deposits  useful  to  the  aborigines.  Such  implements  are 
to  be  seen  in  the  H.  P.  Hamilton,  Field  Museum,  and  one  or  two 
other  collections. 

Several  specimens  known  to  the  author  approach  seven  inches  in 
length. 

Professor  Perkins  mentions  copper  gouges  as  being  rare  in  New 
England,  where  stone  gouges  are  a  common  and  characteristic  im 
plement.  Neither  stone  nor  metal  gouges  are  of  frequent  occurrence 
in  Wisconsin. 


OBJECTS   OF   COPPER 

Adzes 


189 


These  implements  have  also  been  called  spuds,  winged  chisels,  and 
hoes.  Of  these  the  term  "spud,"  though  unsatisfactory,  appears  to 
he  that  in  most  general  use  at  the  present  time.  This  name,  as  has 
already  been  shown,  is  likewise  applied  to  a  rather  numerous  class 
of  stone  implements  of  quite  different  pattern  and  use.  Several 
theories  as  to  the  possible  function  of  these  implements  have  been 
advanced.  It  has  been  suggested  that  they  were  ice-cutting  tools, 
or  agricultural  implements. 

An  examination  of  a  large  series  of  them  suggests  the  correctness 
of  the  now  prevailing  opinion  that  they  were  employed  in  shaping 
wooden  canoes  and  executing  tasks  of  a  like  nature.  Properly 
hafted,  their  general  adaptability  to  such  service  is  plain. 


FIG.  592.  (S.  1-2.)  Various  copper  implements.  University  of  Vermont  collection. 


190      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

A  somewhat  similar  tool  is  also  employed  by  modern  wood 
workers. 

1.  There  are  at  least  two  well-marked  types  of  these  implements. 
The  first  of  these  is  generally  nearly  square,  less  frequently  oblong 
in  outline.   The  flanges  of  the  implement  are  turned  inward  to  form 
a  socket,  at  the  base  of  which  is  a  hip  or  shoulder,  against  which 
the  tip  of  the  wooden  handle  abuts.    The  blade  is  elevated  above 
the  socket  and  is  provided  with  a  straight  or  slightly  curved  cutting 
edge.    The  back  of  the  implement,  opposite  the  socket,  is  flat  or 
transversely  convex,  and  slopes  or  curves  downward  to  the  cutting 
edge.    This  is  certainly  the  most  common  type,  and  has  been  ob 
tained    in    many   parts   of   Wisconsin,    Michigan,  and   Minnesota. 
Examples  have  also  been  collected  in  Ohio,  Illinois,  and  Iowa.    The 
average  specimen  appears  to  be  about  three  inches  in  length  by  two 
and  a  half  inches  in  width.    The  smallest  known  is  only  one  and  a 
fourth  inches  and  the  largest  six  and  a  fourth  inches  in  length. 
Fine  series  of  these  implements  are  to  be  seen  in  the  Logan  Museum, 
Field  Museum,  State  Historical  Museum,  Milwaukee  Museum,  H.  P. 
Hamilton,  and  other  collections.    In  weight  adzes  of  this  type  vary 
from  a  few  ounces  to  one  and  a  half  or  more  pounds.    (Fig.  581.) 

2.  A  second  type  differs  from  the  preceding  mainly  in  the  fact 
that  the  extremity  of  the  socket  is  angular  in  outline  and  that  the 
flanges  are  bent  straight  upward  or  inward,  instead  of  curved.   The 
hip  at  the  base  of  the  socket  is  also  often  absent.   The  back  is  gener 
ally  flat  or  transversely  rounded,  and  in  some  specimens  traversed 
from  the  top  to  the  cutting  edge  by  a  pronounced  median  ridge. 
A  specimen  in  the  Milwaukee  Public  Museum  has  the  middle  of  its 
back  ornamented  with  a  double  row  of  zigzag  incisions.    Its  blade  is 
also  ornamented.    (Fig.  583.) 

These  implements  are  as  a  class  larger  than  the  foregoing.  Of 
a  dozen  or  more  examples  which  the  writer  has  examined  in  the 
Hamilton  and  other  local  cabinets,  none  are  below  five  inches  in 
length  and  two  and  a  fourth  inches  in  breadth,  the  largest  known 
being  six  inches  in  length  and  three  inches  in  breadth.  The  weight 
of  these  specimens  ranges  from  twelve  ounces  to  nearly  two  pounds. 

There  are  also  a  small  number  of  peculiar  forms,  each  represented 
by  a  single  example.  These  vary  in  the  length  and  breadth  of  the 
flanges  and  the  shape  of  the  blade.  When  a  sufficient  number  of 
these  shall  have  been  recovered,  it  may  be  advisable  to  expand  the 
present  classification  to  include  them.  Many  of  the  implements 


OBJECTS  OF  COPPER 


191 


593-   (S.  2-3.)  Copper  chisel  and  awls.   Logan  Museum  collection, 
Beloit,  Wisconsin. 


192      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  594.  (S.  2-3.)  Copper  spears.   Collection  of  the  Logan  Museum,  Beloit,  Wisconsin. 

included  in  the  adze  class  are  admirable  for  their  symmetry  and 
perfection.  A  specimen  secured  in  the  Lake  Superior  region  has 
a  portion  of  the  wooden  handle  still  fitted  in  the  socket. 

Spatulas 

Of  the  copper  implements  known  as  spatulas  only  a  small  number 
of  examples  have  as  yet  been  recovered  in  Wisconsin.    The  blade  of 


OBJECTS   OF   COPPER 


193 


FIG.  595.   (S.  about  3-4.)   Copper  ridged  spear-point,  socket  tang.   From  Coloma, 
Waukesha  County,  Wisconsin.  Milwaukee  Public  Museum  collection. 


194      THE   STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

these  artifacts  is  usually  broad  and  thin  and  irregularly  rounded  or 
somewhat  triangular  in  outline.  The  handle  is  short,  seldom  more 
than  three  eighths  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  nearly  square  or  some 
what  rectangular  in  section.  Specimens  are  to  be  seen  in  the  State 
Historical  Museum,  Milwaukee  Public  Museum,  and  other  local 
collections.  They  range  from  four  to  nearly  six  inches  in  length. 

The  Reverend  W.  H.  Beauchamp  has  described  and  figured  both 
an  iron  and  a  copper  implement  of  this  class  from  New  York.    The 


FIG.  596.   (S.  1-4.)   Copper  spears.    Collection  of  H.  P.  Hamilton,  Two  Rivers, 

\Yi  scon  sin. 


FIG.  597-  (S.  about  3-5.)  Copper  knives.  Left  to  right :  Hartford, 
Washington  County,  Wisconsin;  Alerton,  Waukesha  County,  Wis 
consin;  Wayne,  Washington  County,  Wisconsin. 


196      THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 

possible  employment  of  these  implements  in  the  shaping  of  aborig 
inal  earthenware,  the  removing  of  the  flesh  from  skins  and  bones, 
and  of  the  scales  from  fish,  has  been  suggested.  They  are  but  poorly 
adapted  for  use  as  spoons. 

The  small  number  of  specimens  on  hand  at  present  makes  it 
undesirable  to  venture  an  opinion  of  their  utility. 

Knives.  (Figs.  597,  598.) 

In  point- of  numbers  these  easily  rank  second  to  the  numerous 
class  of  socketed  spear-points.  They  have  been  recovered  in  con 
siderable  numbers  in  many  parts  of  the  state.  At  least  four  distinct 
types  and  some  intermediate  and  peculiar  forms  are  recognized. 
The  close  resemblance  of  some  of  these  to  the  white  man's  knife 
has  frequently  been  remarked  upon. 

1.  The   most  frequent  form   has  a  usually  straight   back  and 
oblique  curved  or  straight  cutting  edge.    It  is  provided  with  a  gener 
ally  short,  tapering,  pointed  tang,  suitable  for  insertion  into  a  wooden, 
bone,  or  horn  handle.    Such  knives,  ranging  in  size  from  diminutive 
specimens  one  inch  in  length  up  to  twelve  inches,  are  not  uncommon 
in  local  collections.    (Left  specimen,  Fig.  597.) 

An  exceptionally  large  and  fine  example  in  the  Oshkosh  Library 
collection  measures  seventeen  and  a  half  inches  in  length  and  weighs 
eleven  ounces.  The  blade  is  one  and  a  half  inches  in  breadth  at  its 
base,  and  the  tang  is  six  inches  in  length.  A  few  have  the  cutting 
edge  of  the  blade  beveled.  In  the  R.  Kuehne  collection  is  a  small 
hammered  native  silver  knife  of  this  type  which  was  obtained  from 
the  vicinity  of  Sheboygan.  A  small  number  of  these  knives  have 
their  blades  ornamented  with  incisions  and  indentations.  Specimens 
of  these  are  to  be  seen  in  the  H.  George  Schuette,  H.  P.  Hamilton, 
and  other  collections. 

2.  A  second  type  is  distinguished  from  the  preceding  by  the  greater 
breadths  of  its  broad  curved  blade,  which  terminates  in  a  broadly 
rounded  point.  In  this  style  of  knife  the  blade  on  one  or  both  sides 
is  frequently  traversed  from  point  to  tang  by  a  pronounced  median 
ridge.    The  broad,  flat  tang  also  terminates  in  a  blunt  point.    Such 
implements  are  to  be  seen  in  the  Field  Museum,  Milwaukee  Public 
Museum,  State  Historical  Museum,  H.  P.  Hamilton,  and  other  col 
lections.    These  vary  in  size  from  six  to  twelve  and  three  fourths 
inches  in  length  and  from  one  and  a  fourth  to  two  and  an  eighth 
inches  in  the  extreme  breadth  of  the  blade.    (One  in  Fig.  568.) 


OBJECTS  OF   COPPER 


197 


FIG.  598.  (8.2-3.)  Copper  spears,  knives,  and  arrow-points.  Collection  of  S.  D.  Mitchell, 

Ripon,  Wisconsin. 


198      THE   STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

3.  A  third  type,  locally  known  as  the  "handled  copper  knife," 
differs  from  the  preceding  styles  mainly  in  having  the  tang  so  uni 
formly  broad  as  to  obviate  the  necessity  of  a  wooden  or  other  handle. 
Only  a  small  number  of  these  are  in  collections.    A  fine  specimen  is 
seven  inches  in  length.  The  handle  is  two  and  a  half  inches  in  length, 
and  of  a  nearly  uniform  breadth  of  three  fourths  of  an  inch.    It 
comes  from   Pardeeville,   Columbia  County,  and  is  in  the  Logan 
Museum  at  Beloit.   A  knife  in  the  J.  T.  Reeder  collection,  at  Hough- 
ton,  Michigan,  has  a  broad  copper  ferule  still  encircling  its  tang. 
The  tip  of  the  tang  is  bent  over,  meeting  the  ferule.  (Fig.  581,  left 
specimen,  near  centre.) 

4.  Socketed  knives.    These  resemble  the  knives  of  the  type  first 
described  in  the  shape  of  their  blades.    They  are  provided  with  a 
socket  similar  to  those  of  the  socketed  spears.    A  small  number  of 
these  have  been  found  and  are  to  be  seen  in  the  H.  P.  Hamilton,  H. 
George  Schuette,  and  other  Wisconsin  collections.    They  range  from 
two  to  nine  inches  in  size. 

In  these  knives  the  cutting  edge  is  usually  along  the  right,  rarely 
along  the  left  side  of  the  blade.  A  specimen  in  a  Milwaukee  collec 
tion  has  its  blade  ornamented  with  indentations.  A  small  number 
of  knives  of  peculiar  forms  are  also  to  be  seen  in  local  cabinets.  (See 
Fig.  597-) 

Arrow-  and  Spear-Points 

1.  Leaf-shaped  points.     (Fig.  598,  upper  right-hand  specimen.) 
These  vary  considerably  in  form  and  size,  measuring  from  two  to 
six  or   more  inches  in  length.  The  average  size  appears  to  be  about 
four  inches.    Some  are  oval  in  outline,  others  elliptical,  lanceolate, 
or  almond-shaped,  the  elliptical  forms  appearing  to  predominate. 
The  points  are  not  numerous.   One  or  more  specimens  are  to  be  seen 
in  all  of  the  larger  Wisconsin  collections. 

A  small  number  of  lanceolate  forms  in  the  Hamilton  collection 
have  the  added  feature  of  a  median  ridge  which  traverses  either  side 
of  the  blade  from  end  to  end.  These  range  from  two  and  three 
fourths  to  nine  inches  in  length. 

2.  Stemmed,  flat  points.     (Fig.  603  —  to  the  right.     Fig.    598  — 
lower  central  specimen.)    These  are  of  quite  common  occurrence  in 
Wisconsin  collections.    These  points  are  generally  quite  flat  and  of 
nearly   uniform    thickness   throughout.     The   stem   is   of    uniform 
breadth  or  tapers  slightly  toward  its  extremity.    In  the  former  form 


OBJECTS   OF   COPPER 


199 


FIG.  599.  (S.  4-5.)  Copper  spear-points.  Left  to  right:  Merton,  Waukesha  County, 
Wisconsin;  Colgate,  Waukesha  County,  Wisconsin;  Wayne,  Barton  County,  Wisconsin. 
Milwaukee  Public  Museum  collection. 

it  sometimes  expands  at  the  base.  The  base  is  sometimes  indented. 
In  the  Field  Museum  there  is  a  fine  specimen  of  this  variety  from 
Montello,  Marquette  County.  It  is  nearly  seven  inches  in  length. 

The  blade  varies  considerably  in  shape  and  size.  The  smallest 
example  known  is  one  and  three  fourths  and  the  largest  about  eight 
inches  in  length.  The  average  size  appears  to  be  about  three  inches. 
A  very  small  number  have  the  face  of  the  blade  ornamented  with 
indentations,  usually  arranged  in  two  parallel  rows. 

2  a.  Ridged  points.  (Fig.  595.)  These  and  several  of  the  succeed 
ing  forms  are,  strictly  speaking,  only  well-established  varieties  of 


200      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  600.   (S.  1-2.)  Copper  spear-heads.    Rat-tail  type. 
Logan  Museum  collection,  Beloit,  Wisconsin. 

the  preceding  type.  In  the  present  instance  they  are  distinguished 
by  the  presence  of  a  median  ridge  which  traverses  both  faces  of  the 
point,  usually  from  tip  to  tip.  This  is  not  a  frequent  form.  The 
largest  specimen  now  known  measures  six  inches  in  length.  It  is  in 
the  H.  P.  Hamilton  cabinet  and  was  found  at  Two  Rivers.  Professor 
T.  H.  Lewis  obtained  a  specimen  from  a  mound  in  Pepin  County. 
Other  specimens  are  in  the  Field  Museum  and  Milwaukee  Public 
Museum  and  several  private  collections. 


FIG.  60 1.    (S.  1-3.)   Copper  spears  and  knives.   Col 
lection  of  S.  D.  Mitchell,  Ripon,  Wisconsin. 


FIG.  602.  (S.  2-3.)  Copper  punch,  hooked  end,  to  right;  from  Barton,  Wisconsin.  Cop 
per  punch  to  left;  from  \Yaukcsha  County,  Wisconsin.  Copper  punch  in  the  centre, 
Wisconsin.  Milwaukee  Public  Museum  collection. 


202      THE   STONE   AGE    IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

2  b.  Beveled  points.  Of  these  only  a  small  number  of  examples 
have  been  recovered.  They  are  distinguished  from  the  most  fre 
quent  flat,  stemmed  form  by  a  distinct  bevel  of  generally  uniform 
width  which  extends  along  the  edges  on  both  faces  of  the  blade. 
Sometimes  this  bevel  is  nearly  one  half  inch  in  breadth.  The  shape 
of  the  blade  varies  considerably.  The  known  specimens  range  from 
two  and  a  half  to  five  inches  in  size.  Examples  are  to  be  seen  in  the 
Field  Museum,  H.  P.  Hamilton,  and  other  collections. 

2  c.  Eyed  points.  The  base  of  the  stem  in  this  rare  form  is  pro 
vided  with  an  eye,  opening  outward  and  probably  intended  for  the 
reception  of  a  rivet.  Otherwise  these  points  do  not  differ  from  the 
flat,  stemmed  types.  Only  a  very  small  number  of  specimens  have 
been  found. 

2  d.  Notched  points.  These  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  a  numerous 
class  of  flint  arrow-  and  spear-points,  after  which  they  are  probably 
patterned.  No  two  of  them  are  exactly  alike.  They  differ  from 
each  other  in  the  shape  of  the  blade  and  shape  and  position  of  the 
notch.  A  few  are  traversed  by  a  median  ridge.  Some  have  indented 
bases.  They  vary  in  size  from  less  than  two  and  up  to  six  inches 
in  length.  Such  points  are  of  infrequent  occurrence.  Specimens 
are  in  existence  in  the  Milwaukee  Public  Museum,  Field  Museum, 
Logan  Museum,  and  other  collections. 

2  e.  Toothed  points.  These  are  rather  remarkable  and  interesting 
implements,  and  are  distinguished  from  all  others  by  the  peculiar 
angular  toothing  or  serration  of  the  edges  of  the  stem,  the  purpose 
of  which  is  evidently  to  facilitate  the  fastening  of  the  point  to  the 
wooden  shaft  or  handle,  into  which  it  was  inserted,  by  means  of 
sinews  or  strips  of  hide.  A  greater  solidity  of  attachment  was  thus 
secured.  The  number  of  opposite  notches  on  the  stem  varies  in 
different  examples,  from  two  to  as  many  as  six  or  seven.  The  usual 
number  appears  to  be  two  or  three.  Most  examples  of  this  type  are 
long  and  narrow.  A  few,  however,  are  short  and  broad,  and  ellip 
tical  in  outline.  The  largest  known  example  of  this  form  is  about 
nine  and  a  half  inches  and  the  smallest  about  two  inches  in  length. 
The  average  size  appears  to  be  about  three  and  a  half  inches. 
In  many  specimens  a  central  ridge  or  elevation  extends  along 
either  side  from  extremity  to  extremity,  or  only  from  the  base  of 
the  stem  to  the  point  of  the  blade.  (Fig.  599.) 

In  both  the  F.  M.  Benedict  and  H.  P.  Hamilton  collections  are 
large  and  fine  series  of  these  points.  Upon  a  specimen  in  the  latter 


OBJP:CTS  OF  COPPER 


203 


FIG.  603.   (S.  1-3.)  Copper  knives,  awls,  fish-hooks,  and  other  objects. 
S.  D.  Mitchell's  collection,  Ripon,  Wisconsin. 


204      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

collection  indications  of  cloth  wrappings  are  to  be  seen.  Other  col 
lections  also  possess  one  or  a  number  of  examples.  The  greater 
part  of  the  known  specimens  are  from  the  Fox  and  Wolf  river  valleys 
in  northeastern  Wisconsin.  Now  and  then  flint  spear-points  of  some 
what  similar  pattern  have  been  found  in  and  about  the  same  district. 
Michigan  has  furnished  a  few  specimens  of  the  copper  points.  Slate 
points  of  very  similar  form  occur  in  New  England,  where  they  are 
regarded  as  knives.  A  small  number  of  copper  points  of  this  pattern 
are  also  reported  to  have  been  found  there. 

3.  Spatula-shaped  points.  (Fig.  596,  central  ones,  and  Fig.  600.) 
These  peculiar  points  have  obtained  their  name  from  the  resem 
blance  which  the  typical  form  bears  to  a  chemist's  spatula.  They  are 
also  locally  known  as  "rat- tailed  points."     In  the  most  frequent 
form  the  blade  is  rather  flat  and  somewhat  elliptical  in  outline.    It 
does  not  generally  exceed  three  inches  in  length,  being  usually  less 
than  one  half  the  total  length  of  the  implement.    A  small  number 
have  an  elliptical,  lanceolate  or  very  rarely  elongated  lozenge-shaped 
blade.  The  usually  long,  tapering  stem  is  generally  circular  or  nearly 
circular  in  section ,  and  is  well  adapted  for  insertion  into  a  perforation 
or  socket  in  a  wooden  shaft  or  handle.   Several  specimens  have  near 
the  tips  of  their  pointed  stems  a  succession  of  rudely  cut  opposite 
notches,  probably  intended  to  prevent  the  easy  withdrawal  of  the 
point  from  the  shaft.   A  very  small  number  have  the  blade  traversed 
by  a  median  ridge.  The  smallest  specimen  of  this  type  of  copper 
point  now    known  is  four  inches  and  the  largest  nine  and  a  half 
inches  in  length.    A  large  number  attain  the  size  of  eight  inches. 
Fine  specimens  are  to  be  seen  in  the  State  Historical  Museum,  Logan 
Museum,  Field    Museum,    Hamilton,  and  other  collections.     The 
Reverend  Mr.  Beauchamp  has  noted  the  occurrence  of  a  limited 
number  of  specimens  in  New  York.  A  small  number  of  iron  trade 
points  of  similar  shape  have  been  found. 

4.  Short-stemmed  points.    The  blade  is  generally  long  and  tri 
angular  in  shape,  the  stem  short,  cylindrical,  and  pointed  at  the  end. 
The  average  size  of  these  points  appears  to  be  about  six  inches. 
(Fig.  596.) 

The  largest  example  now  known  is  twelve  inches  in  length,  the 
stem  measuring  only  about  three  inches.  This  is  not  a  frequent 
form  of  copper  point.  Fine  specimens  are  to  be  seen  in  the  Field 
Museum,  Hamilton,  and  other  collections.  A  cache  of  four  of  these 
singular  points  found  at  Chilton,  Calumet  County,  is  to  be  seen  in 


OBJECTS   OF   COPPER 


205 


FIG.  604.  (S.  i-i.)  Copper  harpoons.   Logan  Museum  collection,  Beloit,  Wisconsin. 


206      THE   STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

the  Milwaukee  Public  Museum.  The  Reverend  W.  M.  Beauchamp 
has  described  similar  spear-points  from  New  York. 

4  a.  Barbed  or  pronged  points.  This  type  of  copper  point  is  of 
rather  infrequent  occurrence.  The  blade  is  usually  of  an  oval  or 
somewhat  triangular  shape.  A  few  specimens  have  long  narrow 
blades.  Situated  just  below  the  base  of  the  blade  on  either  side  is  a 
single  barb  or  prong.  These  prongs  are  sharply  or  obtusely  pointed 
and  as  a  general  thing  do  not  extend  out  to  a  point  in  line  with  the 
outer  edge  of  the  base  of  the  blade.  The  stem  is  short,  flat,  or  cylin 
drical,  and  usually  tapers  to  a  sharp  point.  (Upper  left-hand  speci 
men,  Fig.  592.) 

In  some  examples  the  blade  is  traversed  on  one  or  both  faces  by 
a  well-defined  median  ridge.  The  prongs  probably  served  the  double 
purpose  of  barbs  and  of  projections,  by  means  of  which  the  point 
could  be  more  firmly  secured  to  the  wooden  shaft  into  which  it  was 
inserted.  Such  points  are  to  be  seen  in  the  Hamilton,  Field  Museum, 
and  other  collections. 

The  smallest  specimen  known  is  three  inches  and  the  largest  about 
seven  and  one  half  inches  in  length.  The  average  size  appears  to  be 
about  four  inches. 

This  interesting  form  of  spear-point  also  occurs  sparingly  in  sur 
rounding  states,  and  has  been  recorded  from  as  far  east  as  New  York 
and  New  England,  where  a  few  specimens  have  been  found. 

Large  iron  spear-points  of  somewhat  similar  form,  but  with  the 
projections  squared  at  the  ends,  have  been  found  in  Wisconsin. 
Some  of  these  have  hearts  and  other  devices  cut  or  punched  through 
the  face  of  their  blades.  These  were  probably  introduced  among  the 
Indians  by  the  early  fur-traders. 

5.  Conical  points.  A  very  large  number  of  these  have  been  col 
lected  from  the  extensive  Lake  Michigan  shore  village-sites  in  Wis 
consin,  of  which  locations  they  appear  to  be  more  or  less  character 
istic,  replacing  to  a  large  extent  all  other  types  of  copper  points. 
Some  fine  examples  have  also  been  obtained  from  other  sites  in 
counties  farther  inland;  from  the  Lake  Superior  shore,  and  from  the 
Lake  of  the  Woods  region  in  Minnesota.  Fine  series  of  these  points 
are  to  be  seen  in  the  A.  Gerend,  Hamilton,  Kuehne,  and  other  collec 
tions.  (Fig.  598,  three  lower  figures.) 

These  points  vary  in  length  from  less  than  one  inch  up  to  six  inches 
or  more.  The  majority,  however,  are  of  small  size  and  do  not  exceed 
two  inches  in  length.  The  most  prevalent  form  is  fashioned  in  the 


FIG.  605.  (S.  about  3-4.)  Copper  harpoons.  Left  to  right:  Hartford,  Washington 
County,  Wisconsin;  Wisconsin;  Wauwatosa,  Milwaukee  County,  Wisconsin.  Milwau 
kee  Public  Museum  collection. 


208       THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


shape  of  an  attenuated  hollow  cone  of  small  diameter.  Other  speci 
mens  have  the  point  solid  for  an  inch  or  more  back  from  the  tip. 
Less  frequently  they  are  furnished  with  an  open  angular  socket  and 
hip  like  that  of  the  ordinary  socketed  copper  spear.  In  a  few 
examples  the  flanges  of  the  socket  are  pierced  with  a  square  or  round 
hole,  as  if  for  the  reception  of  a  rivet,  or  possibly  for  the  attachment 


FIG.  606.  (S.  1-2.)  Cop 
per  harpoon.  Collection 
of  S.  G.  Crump,  Pitts- 
ford,  New  York. 


FIG.  607.  (S.  1-8.)  Front  and  re 
verse  of  a  copper  war-club.  Dug  out 
of  a  prehistoric  grave  at  Spuzzum, 
British  Columbia.  Obtained  by  Mr. 
James  Teit. 


OBJECTS   OF   COPPER 


209 


FIG.  608.  The  base  of  the  Effigy  Mound,  Hopewell  Group.  Explored  in  1891-92.  Cop 
per  axes  and  plates  in  the  foreground,  lying  as  found.  Teams,  thirty  to  forty  feet  distant, 
and  two  feet  higher  than  the  deposit. 


210      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

of  a  light  line.  A  few  have  a  rivet-hole  also  at  the  base  of  the  socket. 
It  has  been  stated  that  these  points  have  occasionally  been  found 
with  fragments  of  the  wooden  shaft  filling  or  extending  beyond  the 
socket.  Their  presence  in  numbers  upon  the  sandy  lake  shore  sites 
where  the  aboriginal  residents  appear  to  have  depended  largely  upon 
the  fishing  industry  for  subsistence,  appears  to  indicate  their  employ 
ment  in  such  a  connection.  Possibly  in  the  shooting  or  spearing  of 
fish. 

6.  Ridged  socketed  points.  If  we  except  from  consideration  the 
very  numerous  small  awls  and  fish-hooks,  we  may  truthfully  state 
that  this  is  by  far  the  most  common  type  of  copper  implement  oc 
curring  in  Wisconsin. 

Thousands  of  these  points  have  been  collected  in  Wisconsin,  and 
probably  as  many  or  an  even  greater  number  are  yet  to  be  recovered 
from  the  soil. 

They  are  represented  in  greater  or  less  numbers  in  every  Wiscon 
sin  and  in  many  other  collections. 

This  type  and  its  varieties  are  too  wrell  and  widely  known  to  re 
quire  much  of  a  description.  They  are  frequently  symmetrically 
and  beautifully  wrought,  indicating  a  degree  of  skill  on  the  part  of 
their  aboriginal  makers  that  is  unsurpassed.  The  blade  varies  con 
siderably  in  length  and  breadth.  The  stem  is  provided  with  flanges 
which  are  bent  straight  upward  or  inward,  thus  forming  an  angular 
socket  for  the  reception  of  the  wooden  shaft.  Some  points  having 
fragments  of  this  shaft  still  in  place  have  been  found.  This  form  is 
rarely  if  ever  provided  with  a  rivet-hole.  In  most  examples  there 
is  a  dip  or  shoulder  in  the  socket  at  the  connection  of  the  stem  and 
blade,  against  which  the  head  of  the  wooden  shaft  abutted.  A  dis 
tinctive  feature  of  these  points  is  the  pronounced  central  ridge  which 
traverses  the  back  of  the  implement  from  end  to  end.  It  is  this 
feature  which  has  gained  for  this  style  of  point  the  local  name  of 
"bayonet-backed  spear-point."  The  tip  of  the  stem  is  also  usually 
angularly  pointed.  A  small  number  of  these  points  have  the  upper 
surface  of  their  blades  ornamented  with  indentations  variously 
arranged  in  double  rows  or  lines.  This  type  of  copper  point  has  been 
found  as  far  to  the  south  as  the  Gulf,  as  far  east  as  New  England, 
westward  to  the  Missouri,  and  northward  into  Canada. 

The  largest  example  known  to  have  been  found  in  Wisconsin 
measures  thirteen  inches  in  length.  It  is  in  the  E.  C.  Perkins  col 
lection.  The  average  size  is  betwreen  three  and  five  inches. 


OBJECTS   OF   COPPER 


211 


FIG.  609.   (S.  3-5.)  Large  copper  plate  covered  with  shell  beads,  Seip  Mound,  Ohio. 

W.  C.  M ills' s  collection. 


212      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

6  a.  Rolled  socketed  points.  (Fig.  601.)  This  form  is  almost  if  not 
quite  as  common  as  the  preceding,  from  which  it  is  distinguished 
mainly  by  the  fact  that  the  back  of  the  blade  and  stem  are  not 
usually  upon  the  same  plane.  The  central  ridge  also  is  absent. 
Many  examples  are  provided  with  a  rivet-hole  (very  rarely  with 
two,  one  above  the  other)  within  the  socket  near  the  base  of  the 
stem.  Specimens  with  a  small  copper  rivet  or  nail  still  in  place 
in  the  socket  are  of  not  infrequent  occurrence  in  Wisconsin  col 
lections. 

At  least  two  well -defined  varieties  of  these  points  may  be  re 
cognized  :  - 

1.  The  first  of   these  is  provided  with  a  short,  broad,  oval,  or 
almond-shaped  blade.   The  stem  and  socket  in  this  form  is  usually 
broadest  at  the  base,  tapering  or  narrowing  toward  the  blade.    The 
average  length  of  these  specimens  is  about  four  inches.    A  large 
specimen  found  at  Ripon,  Fond  du  Lac  County,  measures  seven 
inches  in  length,  and  two  inches  in  breadth  near  the  base  of  the 
blade.  Specimens  of  this  type  may  be  seen  in  the  Hamilton,  State 
Historical  Museum,  Logan  Museum,  and  other  collections. 

2.  The  second  form  is  furnished  with  a  long,  narrow,  lanceolate 
blade,  often  twice  or  more  than  twice  as  long  as  the  stem.    The 
socket  and  stem  rarely  taper  upward  and  are  of  more  nearly  equal 
width  throughout.    In  both  this  and  the  preceding  form  the  flanges 
of  the  socket  are  rolled  inward,  in  some  instances  nearly  meeting. 
The  average  length  of  these  points  appears  to  be  about  five  inches. 
The  largest  specimen  known  measures  eleven  and  one  half  inches  in 
length.   Such  specimens  are  to  be  seen  in  nearly  every  Wisconsin 
cabinet. 

In  the  very  limited  number  of  the  smaller  specimens  the  face  of 
the  blade,  rarely  the  back,  is  ornamented  with  indentations.  The 
edges  of  the  blade  are  also  sometimes  beveled. 

Among  the  smaller  specimens  is  observed  a  variety  in  which 
the  length  of  the  stem  equals  or  exceeds  that  of  the  blade.  In  some 
specimens  the  socket  has  the  appearance  of  having  been  formed  by 
excavating  the  stem,  the  narrow  flanges  being  continuous  with  the 
blade  instead  of  cut  and  turned  inward  as  in  the  ordinary  form. 
A  small  number  of  iron  socketed  spear-points,  not  differing  greatly 
from  the  ordinary  socketed  copper  point,  have  been  found. 

Peculiar  points.  In  several  Wisconsin  collections  are  several  spear- 
points  of  curious  form  not  included  under  any  of  the  foregoing 


OBJECTS   OF   COPPER 


213 


FIG.  610.   (S.  i-i.)  Ornamented  copper  plate,  Seip  Mound,  Ohio. 
VV.  C.  Mills's  collection. 


214      THE   STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

descriptions  or  represented,  so  far  as  can  be  learned,  in  other  Wis 
consin  cabinets. 

One  of  these  in  the  H.  P.  Hamilton  collection  has  a  long  slender 
blade  and  a  very  short  socket.  It  is  seven  and  one  quarter  inches  in 
length  and  comes  from  Two  Rivers,  Manitowoc  County.  Its  blade 
is  ornamented  with  a  row  of  nine  indentations. 

In  the  Milwaukee  Public  Museum  is  a  series  of  three  peculiar 
socketed  spear-points  of  an  average  length  of  about  eight  and  one 
half  inches.  The  blade  of  each  of  these  is  very  long  and  narrow,  with 
straight  edges,  and  terminates  in  a  sharp  point.  The  stem  is  very 
short  and  narrow  in  comparison  writh  the  blade  and  broadens  into 
a  short  socket  at  its  base.  One  specimen  has  the  middle  of  its  blade, 
from  near  the  base  toward  the  middle,  ornamented  with  a  continu 
ous  zigzag  indentation.  Another  has  upon  its  blade  a  series  of  dots 
arranged  in  a  triangular  form.  Two  of  these  points  come  from  Fond 
du  Lac  County,  and  the  other  from  Sheboygan  County. 

Harpoon-Points 

The  purpose  of  these  implements  is  too  plain  to  make  any  explana 
tion  necessary.  Four  distinct  types  of  harpoon-points,  none  of 
which  are  as  yet  known  to  be  of  other  than  very  infrequent  occur 
rence,  have  been  obtained  in  Wisconsin.  What  special  application 
any  of  these  several  patterns  may  have  had  is  not  yet  clear.  The 
following  is  a  brief  description  of  them :  - 

1.  The  first  are  short,  flattish  points  seldom  exceeding  two  and 
a  half  inches  in  length.    (Fig.  605,  to  the  left.)    One  edge  of  these 
implements  is  either  straight  or  presents  a  continuous  curve  from 
extremity  to  extremity.    The  other  edge  is  curved  or  straight  from 
the  point  downward  to  about  opposite  the  middle  of  the  implement, 
where  it  terminates  in  a  barb.    From  thence  it  narrows  to  the  other 
extremity,  thus  forming  a  stem.  Occasionally  this  is  notched  on  either 
side  near  its  base.    Small  numbers  of  these  points  have  been  recov 
ered  from  the  village-sites  along  the  Lake  Michigan  shore. 

2.  A  second  and  less  frequent  form  is  cylindrical  in  section  and 
tapers  to  a  sharp  point  at  each  extremity.    (Fig.  604,  second  from 
right.)     Removed  from  one  extremity  by  several  inches,  more  or 
less,  is  a  stout  and  very  pronounced  barb.    All  are  of  large  size.    A 
particularly  large  specimen  measures  ten  and  three  fourths  inches  in 
length  and  about  one  half  inch  in  diameter  at  the  middle.    Others 
are  to  be  seen  in  the  State  Historical  Museum  and  H.  P.  Hamilton 


OBJECTS  OF   COPPER 


215 


FIG.  611.  (S.  2-3.)  Copper  crescents.    Collection  of  Logan  Museum,  Beloit,   Wisconsin. 


2i6      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

collections.  Mr.  Clarence  B.  Moore  has  figured  and  described  a  large 
example  obtained  by  him  in  Florida. 

Iron  harpoons  of  similar  form,  but  frequently  possessing  from  two 
to  three  barbs,  sometimes  alternating  on  opposite  sides  of  the  im 
plement  are  still  in  use  by  Wisconsin  Indians  for  spearing  large  fish. 

3.  Another  form  of  har 
poon    is   represented    by   a 
specimen  in  the  Milwaukee 
Public  Museum.    This  im 
plement  is  somewhat  trian 
gular  in  section,  about  eight 
and  a  half  inches  in  length 
and  about  three  fourths  of 
an  inch  in  breadth  at  the 
middle.    The  ends  taper  to 
a  blunted  point.    The  thin 
ner  edge  of  the  implement 
is  furnished  with  four  stout, 
broad  barbs,  separated  from 
each  other  by  a  distance  of 
about  one  and  a  half  inches. 
Bone  harpoon-points  of  this 
pattern  occur  in  New  York 
and  Ontario.  (Like  Fig.  606.) 

4.  A  fourth  type,  the  so- 
called    "  socketed    harpoon- 
point"   (Fig.  604),  has  one 
edge  of  its  blade  prolonged 

FIG.  612.   (S.  i-i.)   Ear  ornaments  from  the  int°     a     barb     at     the     baS6' 

Hopewell  Group,  Ohio.  This  barb  may  be  on  either 

the  right  or  left  side.  Other 
wise  this  type  does  not  differ  in  shape  from  some  of  the  flat-backed, 
socketed  spear-points.  Only  a  small  number  of  these  points  have 
been  found.  All  these  are  provided  with  a  rivet-hole  in  the  socket. 
An  example  in  the  Logan  Museum  is  about  four  inches  in  length, 
and  comes  from  Mequon,  Ozaukee  County. 

Pikes  and  Punches.    (See  Fig.  602.) 

In  this  class  of  objects,  which  are  as  yet  alluded  to  by  students 
and  collectors  by  either  of  the  above  or  other  names,  are  included  the 


OBJECTS   OF   COPPER 


217 


FIG.  613.   (S.  i -i.)   Copper  crescent- shaped  object  obtained  near  Chattanooga, 
Tennessee.  Milwaukee  Public  Museum  collection. 


2i8      THE   STONE   AGE    IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


largest  copper  implements  found  in  Wisconsin.  They  are  rod-like 
in  form,  usually  circular  or  square,  less  frequently  rectangular  in 
section,  and  taper  to  a  point  at  one  or  both  ends.  Large  specimens 
of  each  of  these  several  patterns  have  been  found.  The  largest  is  in 
the  Field  Museum.  It  is  about  forty  inches  in  length,  one  inch  in 
diameter  at  the  middle,  and  tapers  to  a  point  at  either  extremity.  It- 
weighs  five  and  a  quarter  pounds  and  was  obtained  from  a  burial 
mound  on  the  Abraham  place,  at  Peshtigo,  Marinette  County. 

A  specimen  in  the  H.  P.  Hamilton  collection  is  twenty-nine  inches 
in  length,  seven  eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  weighs  two  and 
three  fourths  pounds.  About  one  inch  from  the  pointed  extremity 
there  is  a  broken  projection  which  Mr.  Hamilton  believes  to  have 

been  a  barb.  The  other  end 
terminates  in  a  small  claw  or 
broken  out  eye.  It  comes 
from  Maple  Creek,  Outagamie 
County.  In  the  T.  W.  Hamil 
ton  collection  there  is  another 
fine  specimen  which  is  eight 
een  and  a  half  inches  in  length 
and  weighs  one  and  a  half 
pounds.  A  specimen  found  at 
New  Haven,  Adams  County, 
is  fourteen  and  a  half  inches 
in  length  and  weighs  one  and 
three  eighths  pounds.  Other 
large  specimens  are  to  be  seen 
in  the  Logan  Museum,  State 
Historical  Museum,  and  Mil 
waukee  Museum  collections. 
Some  of  these  are  rather  flat, 
rectangular  in  section  and  one 

FIG.  614.  (S.  1-3.)  Copper  crescents.  Collec-  & 

tion  of  Wisconsin  Archaeological  Society.  mch    in    Width    and    less    than 

three   eighths  of  an    inch   in 

thickness.  They  are  pointed  at  one  extremity  and  rounded  or 
blunted  at  the  other.  Some  other  large  specimens  are  known  to 
have  been  cut  in  two  and  otherwise  maltreated  by  the  persons  who 
found  them. 

In  the  Field  Museum  collections  implements  of  this  pattern 
ranging  from  eight  inches  or  less  up  to  the  largest  size  are  classed  as 


OBJECTS   OF   COPPER 


219 


FIG.  615.  (S.  2-3.)  Copper  saucer-shaped  object.    Hopewell  Group,  Ohio. 

"pikes."  That  they  were  employed  as  weapons  is  extremely  doubt 
ful.  It  has  been  suggested  that  they  may  have  been  heated  and 
employed  in  the  burning-out  of  wooden  canoes  or  wooden  vessels. 
There  is  reason  to  believe  that  some  of  the  lighter  forms  were  mount 
ed  in  wooden  handles,  at  least  one  example  with  an  accompanying 
copper  ferule  having  been  found  at  Milwaukee. 

Awls  and  Drills.    (See  Figs.  593  and  603.) 

These  have  been  obtained  nowhere  in  greater  numbers  than  in  the 
Lake  Michigan  coastal  region  in  Wisconsin.  They  vary  in  size  from 
about  one  to  six  inches  or  more,  and  in  thickness  from  one  sixteenth 
to  one  half  an  inch.  The  greater  number  are  of  very  small  size. 

The  simplest  and  most  frequent  form  is  a  slender  cylindrical  piece 
of  metal  pointed  at  one  or  both  extremities.  A  second  and  usually 
stouter  form  is  either  round  or  square  in  section  and  tapers  from 
a  well-marked  shoulder  at  or  near  the  middle  to  both  extremities. 


220      THE   STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

Sometimes  one  end  only  is  pointed.  Occasionally  also  the  upper 
half  of  the  implement  is  straight  and  the  lower  half  tapers  to  a  point. 
Many  of  these  small  implements  were  probably  mounted  in  handles 
of  wood,  bone,  or  antler,  the  object  of  the  shoulder  being  to  prevent 
their  passing  too  far  into  the  handle.  Several  specimens  mounted 
in  antler  handles  have  been  found.  Similar  implements  of  bone  and 
stone  have  been  found  in  Wisconsin.  Most  of  them  were  probably 
employed  in  drilling  holes  in  wood,  bone,  or  stone,  in  piercing  skins, 


FIG.  616.  (S.  1-2.)  Possibly  this  was  the  crown  of  a  head-mask. 
It  seems  to  indicate  growing  antlers,  or  those  of  a  young  buck. 
When  found  the  horns  or  projections  were  downward  and  the  raised 
surface  uppermost.  Hopewell  Group,  Ohio. 

and  for  similar  purposes.  The  Eskimo  are  said  to  employ  somewhat 
similar  implements  of  bone  for  catching  water-fowl.  They  are  used 
by  attaching  a  line  to  the  centre,  the  bone  spindle  being  baited  with 
a  small  fish  into  which  the  implement  is  inserted  lengthwise.  Large 
fish  are  captured  by  them  in  the  same  manner.  We  have  no  record 
of  the  employment  of  such  methods  by  Wisconsin  Indians. 

Spikes.    (See  Fig.  580,  lower  left-hand  specimen.) 

In  a  number  of  Wisconsin  cabinets  are  to  be  seen  copper  imple 
ments  locally  known  as  "spikes,"  taking  their  names  from  the  close 


OBJECTS   OF   COPPER 


221 


resemblance  which  they  bear  to  the  modern  articles.    These  vary 
somewhat  in  shape  and  size. 

One  specimen  is  four  and  a  half  inches  in  length,  one  fourth  of  an 
inch  in  thickness,  with  one  extremity  pointed  and  the  other  enlarged 
and  blunted  to  form  a  head.  Another  is  seven  inches  in  length  and 
tapers  gradually  downward  from  the  head,  where  it  is  three  fourths 
of  an  inch  in  diameter,  to  the 
point. 

A  few  specimens  are  decidedly 
square  in  section. 

An  examination  of  the  heads  in 
dicates  that  they  are  not  the  result 
of  pounding  while  in  use,  but  con 
stitute  an  intentional  feature  of 
these  implements.  No  suggestion 
has  been  offered  as  to  their  func 
tion.  They  may  be  simply  perfo 
rators  or  drills.  Some  of  the  stouter 
implements,  with  broad,  flattish 
points,  may  have  been  employed 
as  chisels. 

Needles 

These  are  obtained  from  the 
same  sites  as  the  foregoing  and  are 
frequently  associated  with  them, 
though  not  nearly  as  numerous. 
All  are  provided  with  eyes,  and 
except  in  their  somewhat  ruder 
fashioning  do  not  differ  from  the 
needles  in  ordinary  domestic  use  at 
the  present  day.  Their  purpose  re 
quires  no  explanation. 

These  implements  range  in  size 
from  less  than  two  to  as  much  as 
eight  and  an  eighth  inches.  The 
average  size  appears  to  be  between 
two  and  three  inches.  Such  imple 
ments  are  to  be  seen  in  manv  of  r 

,  .  -  FIG.  617.   (S.  i-l.)   Pendant  of  sheet- 

trie    eastern   \\  isconsm    Collections.        copper.    C.  B.  Moore's  explorations. 


222      THE  STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 

In  the  Milwaukee  Public  Museum  is  a  small  series  of  copper  needles 
from  Mexico. 

Fish- Hooks.    (See  Fig.  603.) 

Hundreds  of  these  and  fragments  of  many  others  have  been  col 
lected  from  the  aboriginal  village-  and  camp-sites  on  the  west  shore 
of  Lake  Michigan  in  Wisconsin.  They  have  also  been  obtained  in 
numbers  from  the  village-sites  at  Green  Lake  and  at  various  other 
localities  along  the  upper  Wisconsin,  Fox,  Wolf,  and  Little  Wolf 
rivers,  and  elsewhere  in  this  part  of  the  state  where  good  fishing  was 
to  be  had.  Some  have  also  been  found  far  to  the  north  along  the 
Lake  Superior  shore. 

Most  specimens  are  of  small  size,  from  less  than  an  inch  up  to 
two  inches  in  length.  The  largest  known  example  is  four  inches  in 
length.  They  are  generally  circular,  though  sometimes  decidedly 
square  in  section.  The  points  curve  and  slant  outward  and  inward 
at  all  angles  and  degrees  of  curvature.  None  possess  any  indication 
of  a  barb. 

The  shank  at  the  point  of  attachment  to  the  line  is  most  fre 
quently  straight.  Sometimes,  however,  it  is  notched,  flattened, 
bent  over  and  flattened,  or  bent  over  to  form  an  eye.  A  few  speci 
mens  have  been  collected  which  have  bits  of  sinew  or  twisted  fibre 
still  attached  to  the  shank.  Fine  series  of  these  useful  articles  are  to 
be  seen  in  many  local  collections. 

In  the  H.  P.  Hamilton  collection  there  is  a  series  of  ten  fish-hooks 
obtained  from  the  bank  of  the  Little  Wolf  River,  in  the  township  of 
Muckwa,  in  Waupaca  County.  These  are  from  two  and  a  half  to 
two  and  three  fourths  inches  in  length,  the  strongly  and  broadly 
curved  hook  reaching  up  to  about  opposite  the  middle  of  the  shank. 
Some  are  circular  and  others  square  in  section,  and  all  are  of  a  nearly 
uniform  thickness  of  one  fourth  of  an  inch.  Several  have  the  tips 
of  the  shank  flattened,  and  all  are  heavily  encrusted  with  soil  and 
verdigris,  plainly  indicating  the  manner  in  which  they  had  lain  upon 
and  across  each  other. 

Peculiar  Implements 

In  a  few  of  the  large  Wisconsin  cabinets  are  to  be  seen  a  very  small 
number  of  implements  whose  exact  functions  are  unknown  and 
which  cannot  be  placed  in  any  of  the  various  classes  here  de 
scribed. 


OBJECTS  OF  COPPER 


223 


FIG.  618.   (S.  1-2.)   Remarkable  effigy  in  copper.    Collection  of  J.  M.  Wolfing, 

St.  Louis,  Missouri. 


224      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

One  of  these,  in  the  H.  P.  Hamilton  collection,  is  eight  and  one 
quarter  inches  in  length.  It  is  circular  in  section  and  tapers  to  a 
point  at  either  extremity.  It  is  seven  eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter 
near  the  thicker  extremity  and  is  knotty  all  over  the  surface.  Mr. 
Hamilton  suggests  that  it  may  have  been  employed  as  a  club  or 
bludgeon.  It  weighs  eight  and  one  half  ounces  and  comes  from 
Little  Chute,  Outagamie  County.  In  the  same  collection  there  is 
also  to  be  seen  a  long,  curved,  flattish  implement  which,  it  has  been 
suggested,  may  have  served  as  a  sword.  It  is  about  twenty  inches 
in  length  and  about  one  inch  in  width  near  the  middle.  It  was 
obtained  with  a  cache  of  six  other  copper  implements  at  Oconto, 
Oconto  County,  Wisconsin. 

Banner-Stones 

The  only  specimens  in  native  copper  of  this  interesting  and 
widely  distributed  class  of  ceremonial  objects  are  in  the  H.  P.  Hamil 
ton  collection.  One  is  of  the  ordinary  butterfly  pattern  with  ex 
panding  wings.  Both  specimens  were  found  at  Oconto,  Oconto 
County,  and  were  included  in  a  remarkable  cache  of  copper  imple 
ments  and  ornaments,  consisting  of  a  crescent,  sword,  chisel,  leaf- 
shaped  blade,  and  two  arrow-points.  This  specimen,  weighing  five 
ounces,  is  three  and  one  half  inches  in  length,  and  one  and  one  fourth 
inches  in  width  across  the  elevated  part  at  the  middle.  The  broad 
wings  are  one  and  one  fourth  inches  in  length  and  one  and  one  half 
inches  in  width  across  their  outer  edges.  The  perforation  at  the 
middle  is  of  one  inch  in  length  and  has  a  short  diameter  of  half  an 
inch.  A  second  specimen  in  the  same  cabinet  is  of  the  so-called 
"pick"  shape.  It  weighs  two  and  one  fourth  ounces.  It  is  five 
inches  in  length  and  only  one  inch  in  width  across  the  widest  part, 
near  the  middle.  The  narrow  wings  are  two  and  one  fourth  inches 
in  length  and  taper  to  a  rounded  point,  the  perforation  at  the 
middle  being  half  an  inch  in  diameter. 

Beads.   (See  Figs.  569,  570.) 

The  most  common  local  form  of  copper- bead  is  somewhat  spher 
ical  in  shape  and  was  fashioned  by  rolling  together  a  small,  narrow 
strip  or  welt  of  native  metal,  varying  in  thickness  from  less  than 
one  eighth  to  one  fourth  of  an  inch  or  more,  only  one  or  two  turns 
of  which  were  necessary  to  make  a  rude  bead  of  quite  large  size. 
Beads  of  this  kind  have  been  obtained  in  large  numbers  from  Wis- 


OBJECTS   OF   COPPER 


225 


FIG.  619.  (S.  1-3.)  Unknown  symbols  in  sheet-copper,  Hopewell  Group. 

consin  village-sites,  graves,  and,  sometimes,  from  the  mounds. 
Quantities  of  them,  as  many  as  one  hundred  or  more,  have  occasion 
ally  been  taken  from  a  single  grave. 

In  several  Wisconsin  collections  fine  strings  or  necklaces  of  such 
beads  may  be  seen.  Beads  of  this  form  have  also  been  obtained  in 
Ohio,  northern  Illinois,  Michigan,  and  Minnesota.  The  Reverend 
W.  M.  Beauchamp  has  mentioned  their  occurrence  in  New  York. 

A  second  and  quite  common  form  of  copper  bead  is  made  of  a 
thin  sheet  of  metal  rolled  into  the  form  of  a  cylinder. 

They  vary  in  diameter  from  one  eighth  to  one  quarter  of  an  inch 
or  more,  sometimes  exceed  two  inches  in  length.  They  are  of  quite 
common  occurrence  on  the  Lake  Michigan  shore  and  on  some  inland 
village-sites.  From  aboriginal  village-sites  at  Two  Rivers  and  on  the 
shores  of  Green  Bay  small  cylinders  formed  by  twisting  thin  sheets 
of  native  copper  between  the  fingers  in  a  spiral  shape  are  found. 

Bangles.    (See  Fig.  569.) 

These  are  also  made  of  thin  sheets  of  native  copper.  They  are  of 
small  size,  conical  or  somewhat  conical  in  shape,  and  open  at  both 
extremities.  It  is  believed  that  these  served  as  bangles,  probably 
taking  the  place,  in  the  past,  of  the  small  metal  discs,  brass  or  tin 
cones,  brass  thimbles  or  bells  with  which  it  was  the  custom,  among 


226      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

the  later  Indians,  to  ornament  dress  fringes  or  other  articles  of 
wearing  apparel.  They  occur  on  aboriginal  village-sites  in  the  Fox 
River  Valley  and  in  the  Lake  Michigan  shore  region. 

Finger-Rings 

These  consist  of  small,  narrow  rods  or  strips  of  metal  bent  into 
the  form  of  a  simple  circlet,  the  ends  abutting  or  nearly  meeting. 
Occasionally  the  rods  are  thickest  at  the  middle  and  taper  to  a 


FIG.  620.  (S.  1-2.)  Copper  fish.    Hopewell  Group.    Field  Museum  collection,  Chicago. 

point  at  the  extremities.  Some  may  have  served  equally  well  as 
ear-rings.  Specimens  are  occasionally  found  in  the  Lake  Michigan 
shore  region,  as  well  as  elsewhere  in  the  state. 

Ear- Rings 

The  fondness  of  the  later  Indians  for  such  ornaments  is  well 
known,  and  it  is  quite  probable  that  they  were  also  in  rather  general 
use  among  the  earlier  aborigines. 

In  the  S.  D.  Mitchell  collection  is  a  small  crescent-shaped  copper 
ornament  which  may  have  served  as  an  ear-ring  or  nose-ring,  being 
well  adapted  for  such  use.  It  measures  one  and  three  eighths  inches 
in  extreme  width,  and  was  obtained  from  an  Indian  village-site  in 
Green  Lake  County.  Similar  specimens  are  in  several  other  local 
collections. 

The  Reverend  W.  M.  Beauchamp  states  that  the  earliest  metallic 


OBJECTS   OF   COPPER 


227 


FIG.  621.   (S.  1-4.)   Copper  eagle.    Hopewell  Group.    Field  Museum  collection,  Chicago. 

ear-rings  in  use  among  New  York  aborigines  were  probably  those  of 
copper  wire  coiled  and  flattened,  and  believes  it  possible  that  per 
forated  discs  and  coins  may  have  served  the  same  purpose  in  early 
historic  times,  but  that  they  were  more  likely  to  have  been  employed 
in  some  other  way.  Glass  and  shell  beads,  and  probably  many  other 
things,  were  so  utilized. 

Ear-Spools  or  Ear-Plugs.    (See  Fig.  612.) 

Professor  T.  H.  Lewis  has  obtained  ornaments  of  this  class  during 
mound  explorations  conducted  by  him  at  Prairie  du  Chien,  Craw 
ford  County,  and  Wyalusing,  Grant  County,  in  Wisconsin.  Ear- 
spools  have  been  obtained  from  various  localities  in  Ohio,  Illinois, 
and  the  South.  Some  of  these  are  rather  elaborately  ornamented 
with  embossed  figures.  In  the  Field  Museum  collections  are  speci 
mens  which  were  taken  from  the  mounds  of  the  celebrated  Hopewell 
Group  in  Ohio. 

A  specimen  in  the  Ohio  State  Archaeological  and  Historical 
Society's  collections  has  still  attached  to  it  a  fragment  of  the  string 
or  cord  by  means  of  which  it  was  probably  attached  to  the  ear  of  its 
aboriginal  owner.  Similar  objects  of  stone  overlaid  with  sheet-copper 
have  been  described  by  various  authors. 

Gorgets  and  Pendants.    (Sec  Figs.  570  and  617.) 

Careful  inquiry  has  shown  the  existence  of  only  a  small  num 
ber  of  these  in  Wisconsin  collections.  It  is  quite  possible,  however, 


228      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

that  such  ornaments  were  in  more  common  use  among  Wisconsin 
aborigines  than  the  present  limited  number  would  indicate.  Be 
ing  fashioned  of  sheet-copper,  they  would  even  under  ordinary 
conditions  be  more  likely  to  suffer  destruction,  through  decom 
position,  than  many  other  less  fragile  artifacts,  which  show  very 
plainly  the  effects  of  chemical  action  during  their  interment.  One 
form  of  pendant  is  triangular  in  shape  and  is  provided  at  the 
broad  upper  extremity  with  two  perforations,  by  which  means  it 
could  be  attached,  by  a  cord,  to  the  person  of  its  aboriginal  owner. 
Such  pendants  have  been  found  in  Winnebago,  Jefferson,  Crawford, 
and  Barron  counties.  One  of  the  largest  measures  three  and  one 
eighth  inches  in  length,  and  one  and  one  fourth  inches  in  width  at 
the  upper  edge. 

Sheet-copper  pendants  of  circular  shape  have  also  been  obtained. 
These  have  perforations  near  the  edge  or  at  the  middle.  The  largest 
specimen  known  is  about  three  and  one  quarter  inches  in  diameter. 
Pendants  of  this  form  have  been  obtained  in  Kenosha,  Jefferson, 
Dane,  Columbia,  Grant,  Crawford,  Barron,  Burnett,  Winnebago,  and 
Brown  counties.  A  few  specimens  of  other  forms  have  also  been 
recovered. 

Crescents.    (See  Figs.  611,  613,  614.) 

In  this  class  of  copper  ornaments  are  at  present  included  a  number 
of  thin,  flattish  objects,  the  basis  of  all  of  which  appears  to  be  the 
crescent,  either  plain  or  variously  modified  by  the  addition  of 
prongs  or  other  prolongations  arising  from  the  inner  or  upper  edge, 
near  the  middle  or  extremities. 

There  is  probably  little  doubt  that  the  greater  number  of  the 
objects  included  in  this  class  were  worn  by  our  primitive  Indians  as 
breast  ornaments,  being  fastened  to  the  neck  by  means  of  cords. 
In  this  way  several  of  them  may  have  been  worn,  one  below  the 
other.  The  adaptability  of  certain  of  the  pronged  forms  for  use 
as  hair  ornaments  is  noticeable. 

Large  numbers  have  been  collected  in  Wisconsin,  and  others 
will  probably  be  found  as  old  sites  are  more  thoroughly  explored, 
and  new  lands  opened  to  cultivation.  The  existing  examples  appear 
to  have  been  obtained,  for  the  most  part,  from  the  village-sites  and 
graves,  where  they  sometimes  occur  in  association  with  copper  beads 
and  other  articles  of  personal  adornment.  But  very  few  have  been 
recovered  from  the  burial  mounds  of  the  state. 


OBJECTS   OF   COPPER 


229 


A  few  have  also  been  found  in  Minnesota,  northern  Michigan,  and 
Illinois.  The  finest  series  of  these  copper  crescents,  representing 
nearly  all  of  the  known  types,  is  in  the  H.  P.  Hamilton  collection. 
The  following  is  a  brief  description  of  the  Wisconsin  types  of  copper 
crescents :  - 

1.  One  of  the  simplest,  although  uncommon  forms,  has  the  upper 
edge  quite  straight  and  the  lowrer  ones  broadly  curved.  Specimens 
have  been  found  in  Manitowoc  County,  and  in  Hough  ton  County, 
Michigan. 

2.  A  closely  allied  type  has  both  edges  curved,  approaching  more 
nearly  the  true  crescent  form.   The  degree  of  curvature  varies  con 
siderably  in  the  small  number  of  spe 
cimens  known.  Specimens  have  been 

found  in  Washington,  Sheboygan, 
Marquette,  Crawford,  and  Barron 
counties.  Minnesota  has  produced 
several  specimens :  one  from  Monroe 
County,  having  both  extremities 
notched  to  allow  for  suspension. 
(Fig.  6n.) 

3.  A  third  type,  the  so-called  "ca 
noe-shaped"    crescent,    usually    has 
its  lower  and  upper  edges  curving 
equally  and  formed  at  the  extrem 
ities  into  a  short  point   or   embryo 
prong,  directed  inward.    This  is  the 
most  frequent  Wisconsin  type,  and 
examples  of  it  are  to  be  seen  in  many 
collections.    The   largest  and    finest 
example  now  known  (10X2^  inches, 
weight  20  ounces)  is  in  the  Hamilton 
collection,  and  was  found  in  the  city 
of   Oconto,  Oconto  County.    Michi 
gan  and  Minnesota  have  also  yielded  a  number  of  specimens.    (See 
Fig.  6 1 1.) 

4.  A  fourth   type  has  the  prongs  or  points  at  the  extremities  of 
greater  length  and  directed  upward  or  inward.   Specimens  have  been 
found    in    Calumet,   Door,    Sheboygan,    and    Marquette    counties. 
They  vary  in  length  from  five  to  seven  and  one  half  inches.    (One  in 
Fig.  568.) 


FIG.  622.  (S.  2-3.)  Mica  ornament. 
Hopewell  Group. 


230      THE   STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

5.  In  a  fifth  type  the  prolongations,  arising  from  the  extremities 
of  the  upper  edge  of  the  curved  base,  approach  each  other  and  unite 
to  form  a  central  spike,  which  is  usually  circular  in  section  and 
formed  by  the  prolongations  being  twisted  about  each  other.   Speci 
mens  have  been  obtained  in  Price,  Manitowoc,  Green  Lake,  Wau- 
kesha,  Washington,  and  Columbia  counties.   One  has  been  found  in 
Minnesota.    (Fig.  614,  specimen  D.) 

6.  Another  peculiar  type  is  furnished  with  a  pair  of  spikes  or 
prongs,  usually  rather  long,  and  either  flat  or  cylindrical  in  section, 
which  arise  on  either  side  of  the  middle  of  the  curved  top  (or  base). 
(Fig.  613.)     Specimens  have  been  obtained  in  Columbia,   Pierce, 
Washington,  and  Vernon  counties.   One  has  been  found  in  Ottertail 
County,   Minnesota.     These  specimens  range  from  four  to  eight 
inches  in  length,  the  prongs  being  from  three  to  four  inches  long. 
A  modification  of  this  type  has  the  prongs  united  at  their  points 
by  a  short  cross-bar.    (Specimen  G  in  Fig.  614.) 

Other  Ornaments 

In  the  Milwaukee  Public  Museum  are  two  broad,  flat  strips  of 
native  copper  which  may  have  been  worn  as  headbands. 

Both  of  these  fragments,  originally  curved,  have  the  appearance 
of  having  been  straightened,  by  the  finders,  and  may  have  formed 
a  part  of  the  same  band.  The  larger  (six  inches  by  one  inch)  and  the 
smaller  (three  and  five  eighths  inches  by  one  inch),  and  less  than 
one  fourth  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  are  ornamented  along  either  edge 
and  down  the  middle  with  a  row  of  deep  indentations.  The  locality 
is  Sheboygan  County.  On  the  skulls  of  two  skeletons  in  a  mound  in 
Crawford  County  were  found  thick  copper  plates.  The  larger  of 
these  was  ornamented  along  two  edges  with  a  double  row  of  inden 
tations,  and  measured  eight  inches  long  by  four  inches  wide.  The 
other  plate  was  about  four  and  one  half  inches  square. 

Mr.  Brown  has  called  attention  to  the  distribution  of  copper  and 
has  described  these  objects  so  thoroughly  that  no  remarks  on  my 
part  are  necessary.  However,  I  wish  to  offer,  briefly,  one  or  two 
suggestions. 

Copper  seems  to  have  played  an  important  part  in  aboriginal  life 
in  this  country.  As  the  natives  possessed  neither  gold  nor  silver 
and  because  silver  ornaments  are  extremely  rare,  one  may  say  that 
silver  was  not  in  use;  copper  appealed  to  them  as  being  something 


OBJECTS   OF   COPPER 


231 


beyond  the  ordinary,  if  not  possessing  supernatural  powers.  There 
was  no  other  substance  which  they  could  hammer  into  shape,  or 
slightly  anneal  and  work  more  easily.  No  other  malleable  ma 
terial  possessed  that  bright,  beautiful  color  and  was  capable  of  such 
polish.  Therefore,  copper  appealed  to  the  aborigines,  and  they  made 


FIG.  623.  (S.  3-4.)  Mica  ornaments.  Ohio  mounds. 
Collection  of  W.  C.  Mills,  Columbus,  Ohio. 

general  use  of  it  more  as  an  ornament,  or  a  totem,  than  for  ordinary 
utility;  that  is,  save  in  the  "copper  belt,"  where  it  was  so  common 
that  tools  were  made  of  it. 

What  the  Northern  Indians  received  in  exchange  for  the  copper  has 
always  been  a  mystery  to  me.  In  Wisconsin  and  Michigan  where 
drift  copper  occurred  in  large  quantities,  and  where  it  still  may  be 
found,  it  is  likely  that  the  natives  carried  on  an  extensive  trade  in 
copper  and  that  the  peoples  of  Ohio  passed  it  on,  one  may  suppose, 
to  the  South.  This  trade  was  extensive  because  not  only  in  our  muse 
ums  are  there  thousands  of  copper  objects,  but  there  are  many  more 
in  the  hands  of  private  collectors,  and  in  the  mounds  of  the  Missis 
sippi  Valley  where  there  has  been  much  digging,  great  quantities  of 
hatchets,  plates,  nose-rings,  and  spools  are  dug  up  from  time  to  time. 


232      THE  STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  624.  (S.  1-3.)  Mica  ornaments  from  mounds  of  the  Hopewell  Group. 
Field  Museum  collection,  Chicago. 

One  may  question  whether  the  presence  of  copper  in  the  Ohio 
Valley  really  means  extensive  aboriginal  commerce  or  trade.  I  say 
Ohio  Valley  because  more  mound  copper  is  found  there  than  else 
where,  although  the  South  should  by  no  means  be  excluded.  Copper 
and  other  foreign  materials  abound  in  the  middle  and  lower  Mis 
sissippi  Valley.  Yet  upon  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior,  about  the 
copper  range,  on  the  streams  and  lakes  of  Wisconsin  and  Michigan 
where  lived  the  Indians  who  possessed  so  much  copper  that  they 
made  of  it  hatchets,  fish-hooks,  knives,  spear-points,  etc.,  usually 


OBJECTS   OF   COPPER  233 

are  to  be  found  no  Southern  types  save  a  few  pipes  and  problemat 
ical  forms  in  slate.  What  did  these  Northern  natives  receive  in  re 
turn  for  the  quantities  of  copper  which  they  must  have  bartered? 
Did  they  receive  bird-stones,  gorgets,  pipes,  etc.?  Their  bird-stones 
are  very  like  those  of  Indiana  and  Ohio,  yet  they  have  a  broad  bird 
effigy  usually  with  ears  on  both  sides  of  the  head  which  is  not  found 
save  occasionally  in  southern  Ohio  and  Indiana,  and  seldom  in  the 
South  where  mound  copper  is  common.  Their  gorgets  and  pipes  ap 
pear  to  be  local.  It  has  occurred  to  me  that  the  peoples  of  Indiana 
and  Ohio,  and  possibly  the  South,  made  raids  in  the  copper  country, 
or  found  copper  nuggets  in  the  drift,  or  mined  their  own  copper,  or 
robbed  the  Northern  peoples  of  such  copper  as  they  wanted.  If  there 
had  been  any  extensive  aboriginal  trade,  we  should  surely  find  more 
evidence  of  it. 

Mr.  Clarence  B.  Moore1  has  conclusively  proved  that  the  copper 
taken  from  the  Southern  mounds  and  Ohio  mounds  is  prehistoric 
and  not  of  European  origin.  Some  of  the  gentlemen  connected  with 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  and  affiliated  museums  contend  that 
the  fine  repoussk  work,  on  sheet-copper,  could  not  have  been  made 
by  aborigines  working  with  stone  tools. 

A  few  words  regarding  the  illustrations.  An  inspection  of  all  the 
figures  in  this  chapter,  marked  from  the  Hopewell  Group,  give  some 
idea  of  the  remarkable  copper  effigies,  ornaments,  cut  designs,  etc., 
comprising  the  Hopewell  collection.  This  is  now  on  exhibition  in  the 
Field  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Chicago,  and  can  be  seen  by  any 
person  who  will  take  the  pains  to  visit  that  institution.  It  is  justly 
considered  the  greatest  prehistoric  copper  collection  in  the  United 
States.  In  the  Hopewell  Group  altars  hundreds  and  hundreds  of 
copper  ear  ornaments  were  found,  all  more  or  less  affected  by  heat. 
Professor  Mills  has  dug  up  many  ornaments  of  these  same  kinds 
and  says  of  them :  — 

"Copper  ear  ornaments  were  frequently. met  with  in  the  graves, 
and  twenty  specimens  were  secured.  They  were  invariably  found  in 
pairs.  The  manufacture  of  these  ornaments  required  skill,  as  well 
as  a  high  degree  of  advancement  in  ornamental  art.  The  mode  of 
manufacture  of  the  ear  ornaments,  although  two  different  types 
were  found,  was  similar.  One  type  was  made  of  two  concavo-convex 
plates,  and  were  connected  by  a  cylindrical  column;  but  only  a  few 

1  "  Discussion  as  to  Copper  from  the  Mounds,"  American  Anthropologist,  vol.  v,  no.  I, 
January-March,  1903. 


234       THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 

pairs  of  this  type  were  found.  The  other  type,  which  was  most 
common,  was  made  of  four  plates  of  copper,  two  of  which  are  circular, 
and  two  concavo-convex.  The  concavo-convex  plates  are  attached 
to  the  circular  pieces,  which  form  the  inside  of  the  ornament.  The 
discs  are  connected  with  a  small  cylinder  of  copper.  This  figure 
is  a  good  illustration  showing  two  viewrs  of  the  second  type  of  ear 
ornaments.  Other  copper  ornaments  were  found  sparingly  in  the 
burial  cists.  From  one  grave  a  large  copper  crescent  was  removed, 
and  from  another,  six  large  copper  balls." 

Sometimes  the  copper  plates  were  highly  ornamented  and  cut  or 
trimmed.  Fig.  610  is  thus  described  by  Professor  Mills:  — 

'  The  plate  shown  in  this  figure  is  perhaps  the  heaviest  and  smooth 
est  of  all  the  plates  taken  from  Seip  Mound.  The  scroll  pattern  cut 
upon  one  side  of  the  plate  represents  the  first  specimen  of  the  kind 
taken  from  the  mounds  of  Ohio,  as  far  as  known.  The  plate  was 
wrapped  in  leather  when  it  was  placed  in  the  grave,  and  portions  still 
adhere  to  the  plate,  as  shown  in  the  cut." 

Of  the  interesting  pendants  in  sheet-copper,  Fig.  617,  exhumed 
from  a  mound  in  Moundville,  Alabama,  Mr.  Moore  has  to  say:  — 

'The  upper  part  of  the  pendant  has  parts  excised  to  form  a  six- 
pointed  star  within  a  circle.  On  the  body  of  the  star,  repousse,  is  a 
symbol  to  which  we  shall  revert  later.  Below  is  an  excised  triangle; 
beneath  which  is  part  of  an  arm  encircled  by  a  string  of  beads  and 
an  extended  hand  bearing  on  it  the  open  eye,  all  repousse" 

The  decayed  cloth,  the  fragments  of  skins  and  the  curious,  fine 
silt,  usually  about  a  handful,  lying  around  copper  objects,  indicate 
that  they  were  at  one  time  carefully  wrapped  up.  If  we  had  pre 
served  to  us  some  of  these  wrappings,  not  a  little  light  might  be  shed 
on  the  use  of  the  more  highly  developed  copper  problematical  forms 
in  the  United  States. 

I  am  indebted  to  the  directors  of  the  Milwaukee  Public  Museum 
for  making  illustrations  of  the  finest  copper  objects  in  their  collec 
tions:  Figs.  574,  579,  582-89,  595,  597,  599,  602,  605,  613. 


CHAPTER    XXXI 

TEXTILE   FABRICS 

IT  would  be  comparatively  easy  for  one  to  write  a  lengthy  chapter 
upon  textile  fabrics.  But  because  of  the  limited  space  now  at  my  dis 
posal  and  for  the  further  reason  that  "The  Stone  Age"  is  purpose 
ly  restricted  chiefly  to  descriptions  of  art  in  stone  rather  than  in 
fabrics,  this  chapter  must  necessarily  be  brief. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  almost  none  of  the  fabrics  of  prehistoric 
times,  made  use  of  by  the  natives  of  that  period,  are  in  existence 
to-day,  and  aside  from  pieces  of  mats  and  here  and  there  a  bit  of 
cloth  from  the  dry  caves  of  Kentucky  and  the  Ozark  Mountains, 
there  is  nothing  in  our  museums  to  give  a  clue  as  to  the  nature 
and  material  of  the  garments,  robes,  blankets,  etc.  We  are  depend 
ent  chiefly  on  history  for  our  knowledge  of  the  use  of  textile  fabrics. 

But  in  the  Southwest  the  aridity  of  the  climate,  together  with 
the  fact  that  the  walls  of  the  cliff-houses  kept  out  the  occasional 
rains,  and  that  the  sands  of  the  desert  drifting  over  the  ruined 
pueblos,  worked  in  harmony  to  preserve  a  goodly  number  of  frag 
ments  of  textile  fabrics.  Some  of  these  are  in  the  American  Museum, 
New  York  City,  others  in  Washington,  Denver,  and  Philadelphia 
museums.  All  are  of  great  interest  and  were  made  use  of  by  stone- 
age  man. 

The  copper  plates  found  in  the  mounds  of  the  Mississippi  Valley 
sometimes  contain  impressions  of  cloth  and  other  fabrics.  There 
are  occasionally  bits  of  charred  cloth,  found  in  altars  or  ash-pits  or 
between  copper  plates.  Professors  Holmes,  Mills,  Putnam,  and  oth 
ers  have  described  these  in  various  reports. 

An  inspection  of  the  material  illustrated  in  this  chapter  will  ac 
quaint  readers  with  the  fact  that  the  natives  of  Kentucky  made  use 
of  various  plants,  the  favorite  of  which  is  the  ordinary  flag,  for  the 
manufacture  of  baskets,  sandals,  etc. 

In  the  Southwest,  desert  plants,  such  as  the  yucca,  possessing 
elasticity  and  strength,  were  employed  for  a  multitude  of  purposes. 

Could  we  have  preserved  for  our  inspection  the  textile  fabrics 
made  use  of  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  we  doubtless  should  observe 


236      THE   STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  625.  (S.  1-4  to  1-5.)  Sandals  from  Salts  Cave,  made  of  bark  and  wild  hemp.    Col 
lection  of  Bennett  H.  Young,  Louisville,  Kentucky. 


TEXTILE   FABRICS 


237 


d, 

1 
O 

I 

u 


.0-0 

o  pj 


•a  o 

'£  2 


238      THE   STONE   AGE    IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

that  primitive  man  in  this  great  region  employed  utensils,  garments, 
weapons,  tools,  and  other  things  made  of  perishable  material. 

Salts  Cave,  near  Mammoth  Cave  in  Kentucky,  has  been  recently 
explored  by  Colonel  Young,  and  I  am  indebted  to  him  for  proof- 
sheets  of  his  work,  "  Discoveries  in  Kentucky  Caves."  Colonel 
Young  states  that  the  cave  has  been  known  for  a  hundred  years 
and  is  an  extremely  interesting  place.  Upon  examination  he 
ascertained  that  many  holes  had  been  dug  in  the  cave  floor  (for  it  is 
covered  with  debris  and  cave  earth),  apparently  by  the  ancient 


FIG.  627.  (S.  2-5.)  Moccasin  worn  through  at  toe  and  heel,  from  Salts  Cave.  Material, 
leaves  of  cat-tail.    Collection  of  Bennett  H.  Young,  Louisville,  Kentucky. 

people  who  had  at  some  time  lived  there.  Contrary  to  the  caverns 
in  the  Ozarks,  this  cave  has  been  visited  and  explored  in  prehistoric 
times,  and  the  remains  of  man  are  not  confined  to  the  openings, 
where  it  is  light,  but  extend  for  several  miles  through  the  various 
labyrinths.  Colonel  Young  writes:  — 

"Along  the  main  cavern  for  several  miles  are  numerous  fireplaces 
and  ash -heaps;  small  piles  of  stone,  evidently  placed  to  hold  fagots 
used  in  lighting ;  innumerable  partly  burned  torches  of  cane-reed,  and 
even  the  footprints  of  the  men  who,  hundreds  of  years  ago,  walked 
along  these  majestic  avenues.  The  cave  contains  a  large  amount  of 
saltpeter,  and  has  a  mean  temperature  of  fifty-four  degrees.  The 
atmosphere  of  the  interior  is  dry  and  pure,  and  this,  together  with  the 
nitrous  matter  in  the  earth,  has  produced  conditions  favorable  to  the 
preservation  of  all  kinds  of  materials.  About  the  hearths  and  fire 
places  were  found  hundreds  of  fragments  of  gourds,  and  also  some 
shells  of  the  aboriginal  squash,  both  of  which  were  in  an  excellent 
state  of  preservation.  Torches  of  reed,  to  be  counted  by  the  thou 
sands,  which  had  been  filled  with  grease  or  soaked  in  oil,  traces  of 
which  may  still  be  seen  on  some  specimens,  appeared  as  if  they  had 


TEXTILE   FABRICS 


239 


FIG.  628.  (S.  1-4.)  Collection  of  Bennett  H.  Young,  Louisville,  Kentucky.   Moccasins 
and  pieces  of  cloth  from  Salts  Cave. 


24o      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG,  629.  (S.  1-4.)  Flags,  wild  hemp,  and  other  materials 
used  in  making  cloth.  From  Salts  Cave.  Collection  of 
Bennett  H.  Youpg,  Louisville,  Kentucky. 

been  cast  aside  hut  yesterday.  Along  the  main  avenues  and  the 
second  or  lower  layer  of  caves,  as  well  as  in  many  side  avenues,  these 
torches  were  found.  Those  who  have  spent  much  time  in  this  cavern 
say  that  they  have  discovered  no  places  where  these  and  other  traces 
of  aboriginal  man  are  absent. 

"Among  the  most  interesting  discoveries  were  a  number  of  neatly 
braided  slippers  or  sandals,  and  fragments  of  textile  art.  Several 
materials  seem  to  have  been  used  in  the  manufacture  of  these. 
Some  were  made  of  the  fibre  of  the  cat- tail,  or  Typha,  a  plant  which 


TEXTILE   FABRICS 


241 


Fir..  630.   ($.  varying.)   Collection  of  Bennett  H.  Young,  Louisville,  Kentucky.   Bag  of 
woven  cloth  from  Salts  Cave  —  nine  by  seven  inches;  plaited  rope;  fragments  of  cloth. 


242      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  631.  (S.  1-4.)  Pair  of  leggings,  with  the  bone  needles  used  in  making  them.    From 
cave-house  ruins  in  eastern  Utah,  1895.  Collection  of  Henry  Montgomery. 

grows  abundantly  in  the  ponds  in  the  southern  part  of  the  state. 
Others  were  woven  of  the  inner  bark  of  trees,  probably  the  pawpaw 
and  linn.  Still  others  were  made  of  what  appears  to  be  the  fibre  of 
wild  hemp,  and  yet  others  from  a  species  of  grass  which  grew  in  great 
abundance  on  the  Barrens  of  Kentucky. 

'The  sandals  show  several  distinct  forms  of  braiding;  the  material 
of  the  more  delicate  and  graceful  appears  to  be  the  wild  hemp,  and 
the  plait  on  the  outer  side  exhibits  a  beautiful  triangular  figure. 
They  have  raised  sides  from  the  heel  to  the  toe,  the  braids  being 
worked  forward,  uniting  in  a  seam  in  the  middle  line  above  the  toes. 


TEXTILE   FABRICS 


243 


FIG.  632.  (S.  1-5.)  Wooden  pail  or  tub  from 
cave-house  ruins,  San  Juan  County,  Utah, 
1894.  H.  Montgomery's  collection. 


FIG.  633.  (S.  reduced  2-3.)  Vase,  turkey 
form.  Feathers  are  indicated  by  marks  made 
with  black  paint.  Collection  of  B.  H.  Young, 
Louisville,  Kentucky. 


FIG.  634.   (S.  1-3.)   Birch  bark  from  a  burial-pit  in  Xorth 
Dakota.    Henry  Montgomery's  collection,  Toronto. 


244      THE  STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  635.  (S.  1-7.)  Old  wicker  and  twined  baskets  from  the  Pueblo  of  Zufii,  New  Mex 
ico.  This  figure  shows  some  old  so-called  Zufii- ware,  collected  for  the  Bureau  of  Amer 
ican  Ethnology  by  James  Stevenson,  in  New  Mexico,  long  ago. 


TEXTILE   FABRICS 


245 


Over  the  instep  many  were  laced  with  cords,  the  lacing  still  being 
preserved  in  some  of  the  specimens.  Frequently  long  ornamental 
tassels  were  placed  above  the  instep.  These  slippers  are  found  in 
the  crevices  of  the  rock  and  on  the  ledges  in  out-of-the-way  places 
where  they  evidently  had  been  cast  aside  by  these  people.  All  show 
signs  of  wear  at  toe  and  heel.  Several  display  a  more  or  less  skillful 
attempt  on  the  part  of  the  owner  at  mending  or  darning.  This  was 
done  sometimes  with  cord,  but  frequently  with  bark.  In  size  they 
vary  from  small  ones,  made  for  children,  to  specimens  correspond 
ing  to  a  number  seven  shoe." 


FIG.  636.  (S.  1-4.)  Coiled  bowl-tray  of  the  ancient  basket-makers,  cliffs  of  south 
eastern  t'tah.  Ornamented  by  two  sinuous  rings  in  black.  Collection  of  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  New  York. 


246      THE   STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

While  we  have  some  numbers  of  textiles  preserved  for  our  inspec 
tion,  yet  our  study  of  the  subject  is  somewhat  narrowed.  As  has 
been  previously  stated,  the  bulk  of  prehistoric  artifacts  are  composed 
of  more  lasting  materials.  It  is  unfortunate  that  we  have  so  few  of 
the  garments,  robes,  head-dresses,  baskets,  wooden  and  other 
things  once  in  use  in  America. 

Thorough  exploration  of  the  caves  and  caverns,  the  cliff-houses  and 
ruined  pueblos  may  bring  to  light  quantities  of  this  textile  and 
wooden  material,  and  I  would  urge  that  such  investigations  be  car 
ried  on.  Many  of  the  caverns  are  ransacked  by  curiosity-seekers, 
and  soon  all  the  objects  buried  therein  will  have  disappeared. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 

POTTERY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

IN  Volume  I,  of  this  work,  on  page  26,  is  presented  the  classifica 
tion  of  the  Nomenclature  Committee  with  reference  to  pottery, 
which  covers,  as  a  matter  of  course,  all  the  specimens  illustrated 
in  this  chapter. 

While  it  is  true  that  a  great  deal  of  pottery  has  been  taken  from 
mounds,  graves,  cliff  -houses  and  ruined  pueblos  by  expeditions  under 


©  O 


FIG.  637.  (S.  varying.)  Outlines  showing  range  of  form  of  vases.    Middle  Mississippi 

Valley  Group. 

my  direction,  yet  I  have  never  made  a  detailed  study  of  ceramic 
art  in  America,  although  in  a  certain  sense  familiar  with  the  forms 
found  throughout  this  country. 

It  would  be  presumptuous  for  one  to  write  of  a  certain  phase  of 
archaeology  that  has  been  more  ably  and  exhaustively  treated 
by  some  one  who  is  a  recognized  authority.  And  in  pottery  we 
have  two  scholars,  whose  explorations  and  studies  place  them  first, 
Professor  W.  H.  Holmes  and  Mr.  Clarence  B.  Moore.  Professor 
Holmes's  "Aboriginal  Pottery  of  the  Eastern  United  States"1 
will  be  taken  as  the  last  word  on  the  subject.  And  Mr.  Moore's 
eighteen  reports  of  explorations  in  Florida,  Georgia,  Alabama,  and 
Mississippi  illustrate  all  the  forms  in  clay  found  in  that  extensive 
region. 

1   Twentieth  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  1898-99. 


248      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

There  is  in  the  United  States  no  collection  of  Southern  mound 
pottery  equal  in  extent  to  that  obtained  by  Mr.  Moore.  His  explora 
tions  have  been  of  great  benefit  to  science,  and  it  is  no  exaggeration 
to  state  that  his  works  shed  very  great  light  on  prehistoric  art  as 
well  in  pottery  as  in  other  materials. 

Therefore,  I  have  quoted  by  permission  from  both  Professor 
Holmes  and  Mr.  Moore,  and  made  use  of  numerous  illustrations 
from  their  reports,  including  the  outlines  of  types  prepared  by  the 
former. 

Pottery  may  be  said  to  be  the  barometer  indicating  the  culture 
stage  of  any  people.  In  the  far  North  there  is  no  pottery.  In  the 
St.  Lawrence  basin  pottery  is  insignificant.  In  New  England  the  few 
artistic  specimens  of  decorative  pottery  have  been  made  much  of  by 
observers,  but  these  rare  examples  of  the  ceramic  art  indicate  pro- 


FIG.  638.  Outlines  showing  range  of  form  of  vases.    Middle  Mississippi  Valley  Group. 

gress  on  the  part  of  a  few  individuals.  There  was  no  real  potters'  art 
north  of  the  Ohio  River  or  east  of  the  Wabash.  True,  there  are 
some  good  examples  of  fine  pottery  from  the  Ohio  mounds,  but  the 
ancient  Northern  peoples  made  but  little  progress  in  ceramic  art  save 
on  the  part  of  a  few  individuals  living  in  the  Scioto  Valley,  southern 
Ohio.  In  the  Iroquois  country  it  appears  that  the  natives  were  on 
the  verge  of  developing  art  in  pottery,  and  had  they  remained  in 
their  barbaric  splendor  two  centuries  longer,  it  is  quite  likely  that 
they  would  have  made  remarkable  advance  in  the  potters'  art. 
Much  of  their  pottery  is  decorated,  but  it  is  crudely  so.  Their  pipes 


POTTERY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES          249 


g  h  i 

FIG.  639.  Vases  of  compound  form.    Middle  Mississippi  Valley  Group. 


250      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

of  pottery  were  highly  developed,  ornate,  and  interesting.  But 
these  have  been  considered  under  the  chapter  devoted  to  pipes  and 
smoking  customs. 

So  far  as  I  am  aware,  the  Wabash  River  in  Indiana  marks  the 
farthest  north,  of  Southern  types  of  pottery.    There  may  be  a  few 


m  n  o 

FIG.  640.   Vases  of  compound  form.    Middle  Mississippi  Valley  Group. 

strays  now  and  then,  but  the  cemetery  explored  by  Mr.  Anderson 
for  Mr.  Peabody,  at  that  place,  brought  to  light  more  than  one  hun 
dred  jars,  bowls,  and  effigies,  all  of  distinct  types.  (A  few  are  shown 
in  Fig.  681.)  Elsewhere  north  of  the  Ohio  and  east  of  the  Wabash, 
I  have  not  known  of  effigy  pottery  being  found.1  Throughout  the 
Ohio  Valley  there  are  some  fine  specimens  of  ceramic  art  found 
in  the  mounds.  But  the  pottery,  as  a  rule,  between  the  Wabash  and 
the  Alleghenies  is  of  the  Fort  Ancient  culture.  Some  of  it  is  shown 
in  Figs.  648,  649. 

At  the  great  cemetery  at  Madison ville,  Ohio,  the  pottery  does 
not  exhibit  skill  in  modeling  or  high  finish.  All  the  pottery  of  this 
great  region  appears  to  be  crudely  made,  of  inferior  materials,  tem- 

1  "  Explorations  of  the  Wabash  Cemetery,"  Bulletin  no.  3,  Phillips  Academy  Publica 
tions,  1906. 


Fig.  641.  (S.  about  i-io.) 

Collection  of  pottery,  fromt  mounds  and  graves  in  southeastern 
Missouri.  From  F.  P.  Graves' s  collection,  Doe  Run,  Missouri. 


POTTERY   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES          253 


FIG.  642.    Outlines  showing  various  features  of  vase  elaboration. 
Middle  Mississippi  Valley  Group. 


FIG.  643.  Outlines  showing  various  features  of  vase  elaboration. 
Middle  Mississippi  Valley  Group. 


254      THE  STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


••—"»  \ 

V 


POTTERY   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


255 


256      THE  STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  646.  (S.  1-4.)  Wisconsin  bowls.  S.  D.  Mitchell's  collection, 
Ripon,  Wisconsin. 

pered  with  pulverized  unio  shells  or  sand.  In  Indiana  and  Illinois 
there  are  occasional  effigies  found  in  the  mounds,  but  one  must  pass 
to  the  Cumberland  and  Tennessee  valleys,  and  to  the  St.  Francis 
basin  of  Arkansas,  to  southeastern  Missouri,  and  to  the  region  about 
Memphis  and  Nashville  for  the  highest  ceramic  art  of  the  Southern 
Mound-Builders.  These  people  were  peculiarly  skilled  in  the  potter's 
art,  and  all  the  museums  of  the  country  are  filled  with  their  handi 
work.  Professor  Holmes  has  commented  on  it  at  great  length  in  the 


FIG.  647.    (S.  1-4.)   Urn  of  pottery.   From  mound  in  western 
Ontario.   Collection  of  Henry  Montgomery. 


POTTERY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


257 


publication  cited.  The  potters'  art  was  highly  developed  in  regions 
explored  by  Mr.  Moore,  as  is  attested  by  the  specimens  presented 
in  Figs.  678,  670-673.  But  effigy  pottery  in  Florida,  Georgia,  and 
Alabama  is  rarer  than  in  Arkansas  and  Missouri.  On  the  contrary, 
there  is  more  decorative  pottery  (with  incised  lines,  tracings  of 
snakes  and  birds)  in  the  region  explored  by  Mr.  Moore  than  in  the 
middle  Mississippi  Valley. 

Through  the  Great  Plains  there  is  a  dearth  of  pottery.  The  buffalo 
hunters  had  little  need  of  it.  The  cemeteries  and  mounds  of  the 
Indian  Territory  and  Oklahoma,  and  of  that  long  stretch  of  country 


FIG.  648.  (S.  about  1-6.)  The  two  central  ones  in  the  upper  row  and  the  left-hand 
specimen  in  the  lower  row  are  corrugated;  from  northeastern  Kentucky.  The  others  are 
from  southern  Kentucky.  Collection  of  Bennett  H.  Young,  Louisville,  Kentucky. 

flanking  the  Arkansas  River,  produce  good  pottery,  but  not  compar 
able  with  that  of  the  stone  graves  and  mounds  of  the  central  South. 
Northwestern  California,  the  entire  Rocky  Mountains  present  an 
anomaly  in  archaeology  in  that  no  pottery  —  save  here  and  there  a 
stray  --is  found.  The  Cliff-Dweller  country,  by  which  I  mean  the 
Colorado  River  Valley,  including  its  tributaries,  abounds  in  pottery 
of  the  highest  type  found  on  the  American  continent. 


258      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

But  while  admitting  that  the  Cliff -Dweller  pottery  was  superior 
in  finish,  material,  and  form  of  bowls,  bottles,  and  dishes,  yet  the 
effigies  of  the  South  and  the  middle  Mississippi  Valley  are  superior 
to  effigies  found  in  the  Cliff-Dweller  country. 

The  uses  of  pottery  are  primarily  domestic.  Whether  bowls,  jars, 
and  other  forms  were  used  as  receptacles  in  which  to  boil  or  stew  or 


FlG.  649.   (S.  1-2.)   Perfect  pottery  found  with  a  skeleton,  Gartner 
Mound,  Ohio.  W.  C.  Mills's  collection,  Columbus,  Ohio. 


bake  matters  not.  Man  invented  pottery  because  it  was  more  con 
venient  for  him  to  make  a  receptacle  out  of  clay  and  bake  the  clay 
than  to  hollow  a  bowl  out  of  stone.  He  moved  in  the  line  of  least 
resistance,  and  it  was  easier  to  make  a  bowl  or  a  dish  from  clay  than 
to  carve  such  a  utensil  from  stone.  While  Indians  roasted  much  of 
their  meat  on  the  end  of  sticks,  or  baked  the  food  in  the  ashes,  yet 
they  preferred  to  boil  and  stew  their  foods.  This  is  especially  true 
of  the  established  villages  where  a  profusion  of  pottery  fragments 
abounds.  It  is  natural  to  suppose  that  as  the  ceramic  art  developed, 
to  the  variety  of  forms  in  clay,  man  added  the  dish,  the  water- 
bottle,  the  effigy,  and  more  or  less  complicated  forms  of  the  jar  or 
the  bowl.  And  because  nothing  but  true  cooking-pots  are  found  in 


Fig.  650.  (S.  about  i-io.) 

Various  jars,  bottles,  and  bowls,  from  graves  and  mounds  in  south 
eastern  Missouri.     Collection  of  F.  P.  Graves,  Doe  Run,  Missouri. 


POTTERY  OF  THE   UNITED  STATES         261 


FIG.  651.  (S.  about  1-5.)  The  small  vessel  is  just  the  size  of  a 
teacup.  The  restored  vessel  has  a  diameter  of  eleven  inches  at 
the  top.  Found  at  Two  Rivers,  Wisconsin.  Collection  of  H.  P. 
Hamilton,  Two  Rivers,  Wisconsin. 

the  Lake  Superior  region,  New  England,  the  Delaware  and  Sus- 
quehanna  valleys,  I  claim  that  the  pottery  art  was  not  developed 
in  those  regions  beyond  the  manufacture  of  rough  utensils  to  be  used 
about  the  fire.  And  although  there  is  some  mound  pottery  in  Ohio 
of  such  finish  and  character  as  to  designate  it  as  above,  and  pottery 
was  made  use  of  in  the  culinary  arts,  yet  these  examples  are  rare  and 
denote  rather  a  high  culture  in  a  certain  locality  than  proficiency  in 
ceramic  art.  It  is  only  in  the  central  and  southern  portions  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley  and  in  the  Cliff- Dweller  country  that  pottery- 
making  became  an  art. 

Indeed  in  the  Tennessee  stone  graves,  and  at  the  village  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Wabash  River  in  Indiana,  there  have  been  found 
numerous  clay  rattles  and  clay  toys.  The  latter  take  the  form  of 
small  bowls  and  dishes.  With  them  are  frequently  small  clay  peb- 


262      THE  STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

bles.  These  little  clay  toys  are  buried  with  skeletons  of  children 
ranging  from  two  to  six  years  of  age.  It  is  remarkable  that  these 
people,  whom  we  have  considered  as  in  the  middle  stage  of  barbar 
ism,  should  have  invented  the  toy.  It  is  quite  probable  that  the 


FIG.  652.  (S.  about  1-5.)  This  pottery  has  been 
carefully  restored.  It  was  found  in  Warehouse  Point, 
Connecticut,  and  is  thirty-eight  and  one  half  inches 
in  circumference  and  fifteen  inches  high.  Collection 
of  A.  E.  Kilbourne,  East  Hartford,  Connecticut. 


women  who  made  these  clay  dishes  were  not  influenced  by  know 
ledge  of  similar  things  in  use  among  Europeans,  for  the  Tennessee 
graves  and  the  \Yabash  cemetery  appear  to  be  prehistoric.  Such 
discoveries  as  the  presence  of  these  dishes  alongside  of  little  children 
suggest  that  we  should  go  slowly  in  our  statements  that  most  of  the 
time  of  the  aborigines  was  given  up  to  warfare  and  barbaric  cere 
monies.  We  know  not  the  whole  story  of  their  daily  life,  but  every 
year  there  are  additions  to  the  sum  of  human  knowledge,  and  such 


POTTERY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES          263 


IP  III 


FIG.  653.  University  of  Vermont  collection. 


264      THE   STONE   AGE    IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  654.  (S.  1-3.)  University  of  Vermont  collection. 

finds  as  I  have  enumerated  emphasize  the  human  side  of  these 
people. 

The  ceramic  arts  among  the  aborigines  embrace  not  only  clay 
forms  used  in  cooking  and  ollas  for  cooling,  rather  common  in  hot 
countries;  but  also  effigies  were  made  of  clay,  there  were  clay  spindle- 
whorls,  also  clay  rings,  discs,  and  objects  we  know  not  the  use  of. 
Clay  beads  have  been  found  in  a  number  of  places.  Illustrations, 


FIG.  655.  (S.  1-3.)  University  of  Vermont  collection. 


POTTERY  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES          265 


FIG.  656.   (S.  1-2.)   Broken  pottery  from  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania  sites. 
Andover  collection. 


266      THE  STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH  AMERICA 


FIG.  657.   (S.  1-5.)   Bowls  from  Kentucky  graves  and  mounds. 
B.  H.  Young's  collection. 


POTTERY  OF   THE   UNITED   STATES         267 


V 


7 


FIG.  658.  (S.  1-4.)  Florida  pottery.   Andover  collection. 


FIG.  659.  (S.  1-3.)  Vessel,  from  Arkansas. 
Davenport  Academy  collection.  Middle  Mis 
sissippi  Valley  Group. 


268      THE   STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  660.  (S.  1-2.)  Vase  with  incised  design.    From  Louisiana. 


FIG.  66 1.  (S.  1-4.)  Florida  pottery.    Phillips  Academy  collection. 


POTTERY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES          269 

with  brief  descriptions,  are  presented  of  all  these  clay  things.  It  is 
quite  likely  that  on  the  large  village-sites  in  the  Tennessee  and  Cum 
berland  valleys,  extending  from  central  Kentucky  to  central  Ten 
nessee  and  northern  Alabama,  many  sun-dried  clay  objects,  or  objects 
imperfectly  burned,  have  disappeared  through  climatic  agencies.  I 
have  remarked  on  the  importance  of  comparing  historic  sites  with 
prehistoric  sites  and  have  insisted  that  this  should  be  done.  I  shall 
show,  in  the  chapter  cited  above,  that  the  prehistoric  as  well  as  the 
modern  Indians  selected  the  most  favorable  localities  for  villages; 
therefore  modern  villages  were  often  built  on  the  site  occupied  by 
a  prehistoric  building.  The  presence  of  stone,  clay,  bone,  and  shell 


FIG.  662.  (S.  1-3.)   Vase  from  Madisonville,  Ohio.    Ohio  Valley  Group. 

objects  on  these  sites  indicates  that  the  population  was  greater  in 
prehistoric  times  than  in  modern.  The  fabrics  and  the  wooden  ob 
jects  of  ancient  times  have  long  since  disappeared,  as  have  most  such 
things  of  even  two  centuries  ago.  It  is  observed  on  many  sites  that 
there  are  no  shell  objects  even  in  the  ash-pits,  and  few  bone  objects. 
I  take  this  to  mean  that  such  sites  are  the  oldest  of  all.  The 
things  that  are  preserved  are  only  those  of  such  substances  as  resist 
atmospheric  agencies.  If  one  will  study  a  village-site,  walking  back 
and  forth  across  the  ploughed  field  for  hours,  —  as  I  have  done,  - 
one  will  observe  that  there  are  pieces  of  pottery  of  firm  texture. 
There  are  other  pieces  of  pottery  ready  to  disintegrate.  The  same  is 
true  of  shells.  While  one's  conclusions  as  to  pottery  are  based  upon 
the  specimens  he  finds,  yet  I  do  not  consider  it  at  all  visionary  to 


270      THE   STONE   AGE    IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  663.  (S.  1-4.)  Vase  from  a  mound  at 
Madisonvillc,  Ohio.  Ohio  Valley  Group. 


FIG.  664.   (S.  1-2.)  Vase  from  a  mound  at 
Madisonville,  Ohio  Valley. 


assume  that  forms  in  clay,  other  than  pottery,  were  in  use  among 
the  Indians.  I,  myself,  have  picked  up  fragments  of  pottery  in  such 
disintegrated  condition  that  they  could  be  crumbled  up  between  the 
thumb  and  index  finger. 

The  range  of  pottery  in  America  both  north  and  south  is  from  the 
rudest,  thick,  clumsy  bowl,  such  as  has  been  found  in  Kansas  or 
Nebraska  or  in  certain  parts  of  New  England,  to  the  highest  art  of 
the  ancient  Cliff-Dwellers.  I  do  not  say  highest  art  of  the  Pueblo 
people,  for  the  modern  Pueblo  art  does  not  equal  that  of  the  an 
cient  Pueblos  or  Cliff-Dwellers.  It  must  be  remembered,  when  study 
ing  American  pottery,  that  although  a  bowl  from  Arkansas,  a  bottle 
from  Mississippi,  a  dish  from  Tennessee,  or  a  pitcher  from  New  Mex- 


FIG.  665.   (S.  a  little  over  1-3.)  Vessel,  from  Arkansas.    Middle  Mississippi  Valley  Group. 


POTTERY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 


271 


FIG.  666.  (S.  1-3.) 
Vase  with  incised  design. 
Lower  Mississippi  Valley. 


FIG.  667.  (S.  1-3.) 

Vessel,  from  Arkansas. 

Davenport  Academy  collection. 


FIG.  668.   (S.  1-3.)  From  a  mound  near  West  Bay  P.  O.   "Certain  Aborig 
inal  Remains  of  the  Northwest  Florida  Coast,"  p.  131,  Fig.  i. 


272      THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 


FlG.  669.   (S.  1-2.)  Clay  vessels  from  Iroquoian  sites,  New  York.  Collection  of  the 
Buffalo  Society  of  Natural  Sciences,  Buffalo,  New  York. 


POTTERY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES          273 


FIG.  670.  (S.  2-3.)  Peculiar  jar  found  during  C.  B.  Moore's  explorations. 
A  vase,  probably  unique,  of  compound  form,  representing  a  short-necked 
bottle  imposed  upon  a  vessel  of  eccentric  shape,  having  a  series  of  four 
projecting  lobes,  above  and  below.  The  ware  is  most  inferior.  The  decora 
tion,  faintly  and  rudely  executed,  consists  partly  of  the  scroll  and  partly  of 
parallel  lines  and  punctate  markings. 


274      THE  STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  671.  (S.  2-3.)  Mound  place.  A  bottle  of  gray  ware,  having  a  flat 
base  and  a  most  unusual  shape  of  body  —  possibly  a  compound  form.  The 
decoration  consists  of  series  of  curved  trailed  lines  above  the  spaces  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  body. 


POTTERY   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES          275 


FlG.  672.  (S.  i-i.)  Mound  below  Hare's  Landing.   "Mounds;    Moundville   Revisited; 
Mounds  of  Chattahoochee  and  Flint  River."    Moore,  p.  431,  Fig.  3. 


276      THE  STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  673.  (S.  3-4.)  This  jar  was  badly  crushed,  and  lay  apart  from  human 
remains.  Put  together,  it  proved  to  be  a  beautiful  jar  of  highly  polished  .ware. 
The  decoration  is  made  of  scrolls,  depressions,  and  incised  encircling  lines. 


POTTERY   OF   THE   UNITED  STATES 


277 


>» 

u 

3 
C 

i» 

c 


278       THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 

ico  may  be  of  similar  form  and  like  pottery  found  in  Greece,  Egypt, 
or  Europe,  yet  this  American  pottery  has  such  an  individuality  of 
its  own  that  the  museum  curator  can  at  once  distinguish  the  one 
from  the  other.  Truly  American  pottery  is  different  from  that  found 
elsewhere  in  the  world.  It  may  seem  a  paradox  and  yet  it  is  true 


FIG.  675.   (S.  1-3.)  Vase  with  incised  design.    From  Mississippi. 
Davenport  Academy  collection. 

that  while  the  bowl  from  Missouri  and  the  bowl  from  ancient  Rome 
may  be  of  the  same  form  and  size,  there  is  a  peculiarity  observed  in 
the  American  specimen  that  enables  one  to  set  it  aside  as  distinct 
and  peculiar  to  the  American  aborigines.  One  could  assemble  and 
mingle  in  a  museum  a  thousand  vessels,  jars,  and  bowls  from  all  over 
the  world,  remove  all  the  labels,  and  yet  the  students  of  American 
ceramics  would  at  once  pick  out  those  that  represent  American  art. 

Professor  Holmes,  in  his  publication  previously  cited,  divides  the 
pottery  of  the  United  States  into  seven  groups:  - 

Middle  Mississippi  Valley  Group. 

Upper  Mississippi  Valley,  or  Northwest  Group. 

Ohio  Valley  Group. 

Iroquoian  Group. 

Atlantic  Algonquin  Group. 

South  Appalachian  Group. 

Gulf  Coast  Group. 

About  the  pottery  of  New  England  he  states:  - 

"The  vessels  were  mere  pots,  and  the  pipes,  although  sometimes 


POTTERY   OF   THE   UNITED  STATES 


279 


ornamented  with  incised  lines  and  indentations,  are  mainly  the 
simple  bent  trumpet  of  the  more  southern  areas.  The  clay  is  tem 
pered  usually  with  a  large  percentage  of  coarse  sand,  the  finish 
is  comparatively  rude,  and  the  ornament,  though  varied,  is  always 
elementary.  The  surfaces  have,  in  many  cases,  been  textured  with 
cord-covered  paddles,  and  over  these,  or  on  spaces  smoothed  down 
for  the  purpose,  are  various  crude  patterns  made  with  cords,  bits  of 
fabric,  roulettes,  and  pointed  tools  of  many  varieties.  The  use  of  the 


FIG.  676.  (S.  1-3.)  Vessel  imitating  animal  form; 
from  Arkansas.  Middle  Mississippi  Valley  Group. 
Davenport  Academy  collection. 

roulette  would  seem  to  link  the  art  of  this  Abnaki  region  very  closely 
with  that  of  the  middle  Atlantic  States  and  portions  of  the  upper 
Mississippi  region." 

In  New  Jersey,  in  the  Chesapeake  region,  the  pottery-ware  is  to 
a  large  extent  of  Algonquin  type,  although  some  Iroquoian  wares  are 
found. 

As  in  the  case  of  New  England,  the  forms  are  simple,  the  pottery 
crudely  made.  But  of  course  there  are  found  fragments  exhibiting 
considerable  skill  in  manufacture.  These  may  be  exotic  types,  and 
their  presence  clue  to  knowledge  of  the  art  of  more  advanced  tribes, 
or  to  barter  or  exchange. 

The  lower  Mississippi  mounds  furnish  some  very  superior  pottery, 
though  many  of  the  bowls,  dishes,  and  jars  taken  from  the  mounds 
of  that  region  are  no  more  skillfully  made  than  those  of  the  St. 
Francis  and  Cumberland  valleys.  There  are  some  examples  of  black 
pottery,  very  highly  finished,  found  along  the  Red  River.  Professor 
Holmes  says  of  these :  - 


28o      THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 

"The  most  striking  characteristics  of  the  better  examples  of  this 
ware  are  the  black  color  and  the  mechanical  perfection  of  construc 
tion,  surface  finish,  and  decoration.  The  forms  are  varied  and 
symmetric.  The  black  surface  is  highly  polished  and  is  usually 
decorated  with  incised  patterns.  The  scroll  was  the  favorite  decorat- 


FIG.  677.  (S.  1-3.)  Vessel  imitating  animal  form;  from  Arkansas. 

ive  design,  and  it  will  be  difficult  to  find  in  any  part  of  the  world 
a  more  chaste  and  elaborate  treatment  of  this  motive." 

Professor  Holmes  devotes  special  attention  to  the  southern 
Appalachian  stamped  ware.  Most  of  the  specimens  in  the  Smith 
sonian  came  from  the  Savannah  River  Valley.  Mr.  Moore  has  dug 
up  a  great  deal  of  this  pottery  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  The 
designs  are  stamped  by  means  of  a  paddle.  Professor  Holmes  gives 
us  the  following  description:  - 

"Although  some  of  the  peculiar  designs  with  which  the  paddle 
stamps  were  embellished  may  have  come,  as  has  been  suggested, 
from  neighboring  Antillean  peoples,  it  is  probable  that  the  imple 
ment  is  of  Continental  origin.  It  is  easy  to  see  how  the  use  of  figured 
modeling-tools  could  arise  with  any  people  out  of  the  simple  primitive 
processes  of  vessel-modeling.  As  the  walls  were  built  up  by  means 
of  flattish  strips  of  clay,  added  one  upon  another,  the  fingers  and 
hand  were  used  to  weld  the  parts  together  and  to  smooth  down  the 
uneven  surfaces.  In  time  various  improvised  implements  would 
come  into  use  —  shells  for  scraping,  smooth  stones  for  rubbing,  and 
paddle-like  tools  for  malleating.  Some  of  the  latter,  having  textured 
surfaces,  would  leave  figured  imprints  on  the  plastic  surface,  and 
these,  producing  a  pleasing  effect  on  the  primitive  mind,  would  lead 


POTTERY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES          281 


FIG.  678.  (S.  1-2.)  Effigy  bottle.  Collection  of  E.  E.  Baird,  Poplar  Bluff,  Missouri. 


282      THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 


a 


w 


Fig.  680.  (5.  about  1-8.) 

Decorated  and  painted  bowls  and  jars  typical  of  the 
best  pottery,  from  the  Middle  Mississippi  Valley.  Taken 
from  mounds  and  graves  of  Arkansas  and  Missouri. 
From  the  collection  of  F.  P.  Graves,  Doe  Run,  Missouri. 


POTTERY  OF   THE  UNITED  STATES         285 


FIG.  681.  (S.  1-5.)  Three  effigy  bowls.   From  the  Wabash  Cemetery. 


FIG.  682.  (S.  1-2.)  Remarkable  effigy  bowl  in  clay.  Supposed  to  be  a  life-mask.  Found 
near  Blythesville,  Mississippi  County,  Arkansas.  From  burial-site  which  was  being  washed 
away  by  river.  Side  view.  Collection  of  H.  M.  Braun,  East  St.  Louis,  Illinois. 


286      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH    AMERICA 


FIG.  683.  (S.  1-2.)  Front  view  of  Fig.  682. 

to  extension  of  use,  and,  finally,  to  the  invention  of  special  tools 
and  the  adding  of  elaborate  designs.  But  the  use  of  figured  surfaces 
seems  to  have  had  other  than  purely  decorative  functions,  and,  in 
deed,  in  most  cases,  the  decorative  idea  may  have  been  secondary. 
"It  will  be  observed  by  one  who  attempts  the  manipulation  of 
clay  that  striking  or  paddling  with  a  smooth  surface  has  often  the 
tendency  to  extend  flaws  and  to  start  new  ones,  thus  weakening 
the  wall  of  the  vessel,  but  a  ribbed  or  deeply  figured  surface  properly 
applied  has  the  effect  of  welding  the  clay  together,  of  kneading  the 
plastic  surface,  producing  numberless  minute  dovetailings  of  the  clay 
which  connect  across  weak  lines  and  incipient  cracks,  adding  greatly 
to  the  strength  of  the  vessel. 

'That  the  figured  stamp  had  a  dual  function,  a  technic  and  an 
esthetic  one,  is  fully  apparent.    When  it  was  applied  to  the  surface 


POTTERY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES          287 


FIG.  684.    (S.  1-3.)    Three  typical  bowls  from  the  Chaco  Group  of  ruins,   New  Mexico. 
Dug  up  from  debris  in  a  lower  room,  Pueblo  Bonito,  in  1897,  by  W.  K.  Moorehead. 

it  removed  unevenness  and  welded  the  plastic  clay  into  a  firm, 
tenacious  mass.  Scarifying  with  a  rude  comb-like  tool  was  employed 
in  some  sections  for  the  same  purpose,  and  was  so  used  more  generally 
on  the  inner  surface,  where  a  paddle  or  stamp  could  not  be  employed. 
That  this  was  recognized  as  one  of  the  functions  of  the  stamp  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  in  many  neatly  finished  vessels,  where  cer 
tain  portions  received  a  smooth  finish,  the  paddle  had  first  been  used 
over  the  entire  vessel,  the  pattern  being  afterward  worked  down 
with  a  polishing-stone.  However,  the  beauty  of  the  designs  em 
ployed  and  the  care  and  taste  with  which  they  were  applied  to  the 
vases  bear  ample  testimony  to  the  fact  that  the  function  of  the 
stamp  as  used  in  this  province  was  largely  esthetic." 

Of  the  life  element  in  decoration  on  pottery,  Professor  Holmes 
writes  at  some  length.  He  assembled  a  number  of  vessels  on  which 
were  various  decorations  representing  man,  quadrupeds,  birds, 
reptiles,  batrachians,  and  fishes.  'The  conclusion  reached  is  that 
there  is  at  least  a  large  degree  of  consistency,  and  that  particular 
forms  of  creatures  may  be  recognized  far  down  the  scale  toward  the 
geometric.  Exceptions  were  noted,  however.  The  symbols  are 
occasionally  intermingled,  as  if  the  significance  of  the  particular 


288      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

forms  had  been  lost  sight  of,  the  potter  using  them  as  symbols  of  the 
life  idea  in  general,  or  as  mere  decorations. 

"As  a  rule,  the  incised  designs  are  more  highly  conventional  than 
the  plastic,  the  eagle  and  the  serpent  being  the  only  incised  forms, 


FIG.  685.  (S.  about  1-4.)  Four  typical  Chaco  pitchers.    Andover  collection. 


so  far  as  has  been  observed,  realistically  treated;  but  it  was  possible 
to  recognize  others  through  their  association  with  the  modeled 
forms.  In  vessels  furnished  with  the  head  of  a  bird  in  relief,  for 
example,  the  same  kind  of  incised  figures  were  generally  found 
around  the  vessel,  and  these  are  recognized  as  being  more  or  less 
fully  conventionalized  representations  of  wings.  The  same  is  true 
of  the  fish  and  its  gills,  fins,  and  tail;  of  the  serpent  and  its  spots  and 
rattles,  and  of  the  frog  and  its  legs.  The  relieved  figures,  realistic 
ally  treated,  become  thus  a  key  to  the  formal  incised  designs,  en- 


POTTERY   OF  THE   UNITED  STATES         289 


FIG.  686.   (S.  1-4.)   Double  jar  from  the  Chaco  Group.   Found  in  a  lower 
room  in  Pueblo  Bonito. 

abling  us  to  identify  them  when  separately  used.  It  will  be  seen, 
however,  that  since  all  forms  shade  off  into  the  purely  geometric, 
there  comes  a  stage  when  all  must  be  practically  alike;  and  in  inde 
pendent  positions,  since  we  have  no  key,  we  fail  to  distinguish  them, 
and  can  only  say  that  whatever  they  represented  to  the  potter  they 
cannot  be  to  us  more  than  mere  suggestions  of  the  life  idea.  To  the 
native  potter  the  life  concept  was  probably  an  essential  association 
with  every  vessel." 

All  writers  on  pottery  observe  a  great  difference  between  the 
ware  of  the  North  and  that  of  the  South.  Professor  Holmes  points 
to  this  in  more  than  one  place  in  his  writings,  and  he  asks  this  ques 
tion  :  "  Is  it  due  to  differences  in  race?  Were  the  Southern  tribes  as  a 
body  more  highly  endowed  than  the  Northern,  or  did  the  currents  of 
migration,  representing  distinct  centres  of  culture,  come  from  op 
posite  quarters  to  meet  along  this  line.  Or  does  the  difference  result 
from  the  unlike  environments  of  the  two  sections,  the  one  fertile  and 
salubrious,  encouraging  progress  in  art,  and  the  other  rigorous  and 
exacting,  checking  tendencies  in  that  direction?  Or  does  the  weaken- 


290      THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 


C  "C 

•-     ,3 


c  o 
o  u 

*.p    en 


Fig.  688.  (S.   indicated.} 

A   jar  of    "  coiled  ware,"  from    a   cliff -house    in    New 
Mexico.  Collection  of  M.  C.  Long,  Kansas  City,  Missouri. 


.  ir-  X^V--C^T!5pi5jK-*jj 


.  = 

^x^Sv5^^ 


p^spg 


POTTERY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES          293 


FIG.  689.  (S.  1-3.)  Stones  used  in  smoothing  pottery,  kneading  clay,  etc. 


294      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

ing  art  impulse  indicate  increasing  distance  from  the  great  art 
centres  in  the  far  South,  in  Mexico,  and  Yucatan?" 

The  antiquity  of  pottery  in  this  country  is  a  question  of  absorbing 
interest.  Perhaps  the  shell  mounds  of  Florida  shed  more  light  on 
this  question  than  do  other  remains.  Mr.  Clarence  B.  Moore,  who 
has  explored  for  several  seasons,  and  thoroughly  opened  numbers 
of  shell  mounds,  states  that  sometimes  there  was  no  pottery  in  the 
lower  layers  of  some  of  these  mounds.  This  would  indicate  that 
some  of  the  shell  mounds  are  very  old,  and  had  been  in  use  before 
the  discovery  and  utilization  of  pottery  by  our  aborigines.  I.  regret 
that  I  have  not  space  to  quote  Mr.  Moore's  remarks  at  length,  but 
must  refer  readers  to  his  reports,  which  take  up  this  important  ques 
tion  in  detail. 

Mr.  Brown  reports  on  the  pottery  of  his  region  as  follows  :- 

"  About  thirty-five  specimens  of  the  earthenware  vessels  of  the 
Wisconsin  Indians  are  now  in  existence.  Most  of  these  have  been 
described  and  figured  in  the  Wisconsin  Archeologist.  The  largest 
of  these  vessels  in  the  J.  P.  Schumacher  collection  at  Green  Bay  is 
twenty  inches  in  height  and  twenty-two  inches  in  diameter  at  the 
widest  part.  It  has  the  great  capacity  of  two  and  one  fourth  bushels. 
The  smallest  specimen  is  in  the  H.  P.  Hamilton  collection  and  is  of 
about  the  size  of  an  ordinary  cup. 

"Other  pottery  objects  found  in  Wisconsin  include  pipes,  a  few 
beads,  and  perforated  discs  made  of  potsherds." 

I  am  indebted  to  Professor  Holmes  for  Figures  637  to  646,  659, 
660,  662  to  667,  675,  677,  and  to  Mr.  Moore  for  Figures  668  to 
674. 


CHAPTER   XXXIII 

HEMATITE   OBJECTS 

THE  hematite  beds  in  various  portions  of  the  United  States  fur 
nished  the  Indians  with  paint  and  with  implements.  Hematite,  like 
copper,  being  different  from  other  materials  with  which  he  was 
familiar  appealed  to  the  aborigine.  Its  bright  red  color  attracted 
him,  and  although  he  found  most  of  it  very  hard,  yet  he  made  use  of 
it  to  a  remarkable  extent  when  one  considers  how  refractory  it  was 
for  him  to  work.  Hematite  is  found  on  the  surface  in  large  quantities 
in  portions  of  Missouri  and  Arkansas,  in  western  Virginia,  Ohio,  and 
elsewhere.  Most  of  the  hematite  seems  to  come  from  Missouri.  It 
was  common  there,  and  therefore  the  native  made  of  it  grooved  hem 
atite  axes,  which  he  did  not  do  elsewhere  in  this  country.  One  sup 
poses  that  hematite  was  exchanged  and  bartered  with  remote  tribes. 
Just  as  in  the  case  of  copper,  the  natives  of  Louisiana,  Mississippi, 
Indiana,  and  Michigan  prized  their  hematite  highly  and  made  of  it 
their  most  perfect  plummet-shaped  ornaments,  hematite  celts,  and 
such  other  objects  as  it  was  possible  for  them  to  manufacture.  The 
softer  kinds  of  hematite  were  ground  into  paint,  and  there  are  fre 
quently  found  on  the  village-sites  along  the  Ohio  River  small  blocks 
of  hematite  worn  to  flat  surfaces.  There  is  in  the  Arkansas  region  a 
very  hard  blue-red  or  blue-gray  hematite.  How  the  Indians  cut  this 
into  symmetrical  oval  plummets  has  always  been  a  mystery  to  me. 
If  the  rough  nugget  was  ground  by  means  of  other  stones  or  sand, 
one  is  scarcely  able  to  conceive  how  the  finished  article  was  pro 
duced.  The  process  must  have  been  long  and  laborious,  much  more 
so  than  the  manufacture  of  an  effigy  pipe,  or  the  making  of  a  pro 
blematical  form. 

The  hard  gray  hematite  referred  to  resists  the  knife  and  will  wear 
an  ordinary  file  in  a  short  time,  yet  in  the  altar  mounds  of  the  Ohio 
Valley,  and  in  the  older  graves  (not  graves  of  the  historic  period)  are 
found  numbers  of  these  slender  hematite  plummets  (see  Fig.  700) 
worked  from  the  hardest  and  most  refractory  iron  ore.  It  is  unfortun 
ate  that  the  earliest  tribes  known  to  the  voyagers  and  explorers  in 
this  country  had  no  hematite  objects  in  use  among  them.  If  so,  I 


296      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  690.  (S.  i -i.)  Eight  hematite  objects  from  the  Andover  collection.  In  the  upper 
right-hand  corner  is  a  hematite  pebble,  polished  on  two  of  its  angles  and  rough  on  the 
other  side.  This  illustrates  how  hematite  was  cut  and  ground  until  reduced  to  the  desired 
shape.  Flint  scratchings  are  still  plain  on  the  surface.  Just  beneath  it  is  a  triangular  bit 
of  hematite.  This  is  of  soft  hematite.  The  flat  surface  may  be  due  to  grinding  in  order  to 
obtain  paint.  Beneath  are  two  hematite  cones.  The  four  specimens  to  the  left  represent 
hematite  objects  in  various  stages  of  manufacture. 


HEMATITE   OBJECTS 


297 


FIG.  691.  (S.  1-2.) 

These  are  from  the  collection  of  George  Y.  Hull,  St.  Joseph,  Missouri. 

1.  Celt    from    mound,    Andrew    County,   Missouri.    Smooth  and  well-made  but  not 

polished. 

2.  Plumb  much  pitted  by  age,  surface  find,  Callaway  County,  Missouri. 

3.  A  fine  truncated  cone  used  as  a  paint-grinder.    Top  of  cone  is  worn  and  depressed 

from  use.    Surface  find,  Callaway  County,  Missouri. 

4.  Finely  polished  celt,  surface  find,  Doniphan  County,  Kansas. 

5.  From  an  old  grave  near  the  village-site  at  Wathena,  Kansas. 

6.  Axe  with  flat  top  and  flat  side,  —  a  surface  find,  Callaway  County,  Missouri. 

7.  From  an  old  village-site  at  King  Hill,  St.  Joseph,  Buchanan  County,  Missouri. 
The  difference  between  the  celts  is  self-evident,  numbers  i  and  4  being  square,  and 

5  and  7  oval. 


298      THE  STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  692.  (S.  1-5.)  This  figure 
illustrates  three  grooved  axes  in 
the  lower  row;  an  unfinished 
hematite  implement  of  unknown 
purpose  and  a  hematite  nodule 
above.  Hematite  axes  are  fre 
quently  found  in  Missouri,  but 
seem  rare  elsewhere  in  the  coun 
try.  The  groove  may  entirely 
encircle  them,  or  be  faintly  indi 
cated  on  the  back.  But  usually 
they  are  grooved  entirely  around. 
The  one  in  the  lower  left-hand 
corner  has  a  broad,  sharp,  cutting 
edge.  Naturally,  because  of  its 
hardness,  hematite  made  excel 
lent  axes.  They  retained  their 
edges  longer  and  more  nearly 
approached  the  modern  iron  axe 
than  any  other  aboriginal  tool. 

fail  to  find  references  to  such  objects.  This  is  unfortunate  because 
hematite  certainly  was  considered  as  more  than  of  passing  import 
ance.  It  is  quite  likely  that  because  it  was  so  difficult  to  reduce  it 
to  the  desired  shape  the  so-called  plummets  were  made  use  of,  as 
Dr.  Yates  suggests,  as  stones  used  in  certain  ceremonies,  or  by 
shamans,  or  as  charm-stones.  I  have  seen  unfinished  hematite 
plummets,  but  cannot  work  out  a  satisfactory  theory  as  to  their 
manufacture. 


FIG.  693.  (S.  1-2.)  Hematite  objects  from  the  collection  of  Dr.  Henry  M.  Whelp- 
ley,  St.  Louis,  Missouri.  Hematite  plummet  to  the  left,  grooved  axe  in  the  centre,  a 
hematite  cone  to  the  right,  a  celt  in  the  lower  right-hand  corner. 


Fig.  694.  (S.  about  1-3.) 

Group  of  nine  grooved  hematite  axes,  -from  eastern  and  central 
Missouri.    Collection  of  F.  P.  Graves,  Doe  Run,  Missouri. 


HEMATITE   OBJECTS 


301 


I  have  presented  a  series  of  figures  covering  all  the  known  forms 
of  hematites.  No  classification  was  attempted  by  the  Nomenclature 
Committee,  and  the  following  is  of  my  own  make:  — 


Elongated  or  oval 
hematites. 


Edged  hematites. 


f  Plummet-shaped.    (Fig.  700.) 
J 


Egg-shaped.    (Fig.  699.) 
Egg-shaped,  flattened.    (Fig.  697,  lower  row.) 
Cone-shaped.    (Fig.  697,  upper  part.) 
(  Celt  form,  oval.    (Fig.  691,  specimens  5  and  7.) 
Celt  form,  beveled  edge.    (Fig.  693,  lower  right.) 
Axe  form.    (Figs.  694,  695.) 
Irregular  forms.    (Fig.  701.) 
Paint-stone  hematite.  (Fig.  690,  second  from  the  top.) 


Hematite  being  valuable,  may  have  served  several  purposes  and 
doubtless  did.  The  small  celts  might  have  been  set  in  the  heads  of 
war-clubs  and  securely  gummed  in  place.  I  have  no  particular  evi 
dence  as  to  this,  but  have  always  believed  that  some  of  them  were 
so  used.  Occasionally,  one  finds  hematite  ornaments  and  hematite 
bicaves.  The  information  one  is  able  to  impart  with  reference  to 
hematite  implements  and  their  use  is  an  illustration  of  the  disad 
vantages  under  \vhich  we  labor  in  dealing  with  some  of  our  archaeo 
logical  problems.  There  are  certain  phases  of  prehistoric  life  with 


FIG.  695.  (S.  1-2.)  Two  of  the  best  grooved  axes  I  have  ever 
seen  are  shown  in  this  figure,  from  the  collection  of  Mr.  Braun, 
East  St.  Louis,  Illinois.  There  is  one  in  the  National  Museum, 
and  one  in  the  New  York  Museum,  each  of  which  weighs  over 
ten  pounds,  and  they  are  nearly  as  symmetrical  as  Mr.  Braun's 
largest  axe. 


302      THE   STONE   AGE    IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

which  we  are  familiar.  Others  we  know  nothing  of  save  as  we  learn 
by  continuous  study,  by  gleaning  a  fact  here  and  there  from  the 
specimens  themselves,  and  from  exploration. 

In  the  collection  at  Andover  there  are  about  four  hundred  hema 
tite  objects.     The  collections  in   the  Smithsonian  and  American 


FIG.  696.   (S.  i -i.)  A  beautiful  hematite  axe  from  the  collection  of  Henry 
M.  Whelpley,  St.  Louis,  Missouri.  This  was  found  in  central  Missouri. 

Museum  of  Natural  History  are  much  larger.  Doubtless  we  should 
be  quite  surprised  if  we  were  able  to  reconstruct  the  past  and  see  to 
what  use  these  strange  iron  ore  specimens  were  put  by  the  natives 
who  worked  so  long  and  laboriously  to  bring  them  into  a  state  of 
perfection. 

Mr.  C.  E.  Brown,  reporting  on  the  hematites  of  his  region,  states: 


HEMATITE   OBJECTS 


303 


FlG.  697.   (S.  1-2.)   Hematite  cones.   Collection  of  H.  M.  Whelpley,  St.  Louu 
Missouri.    Localities:  Missouri,  Illinois,  and  Arkansas. 


304      THE   STONE  AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 

' '  A  small  number  of  implements  made  of  this  material  have  been 
obtained  in  Wisconsin.  These  include  a  grooved  axe,  a  number  of 
celts,  several  cones  and  plummets,  a  gorget,  and  a  pipe.  The  total 
number  of  specimens  of  all  classes  at  present  known  to  exist  in  local 
collections  does  not  exceed  thirty  specimens.  Nearly  all  come  from 
southern  Wisconsin  counties.  Several  specimens  have  been  obtained 
as  far  north  in  the  state  as  Winnebago  County.  It  is  likely  that  some 


^  fil  W  9 


FIG.  698.   (S.   1-2.)   Hematite  cones.   Collection  of  Henry  M.  Whelpley,  St.  Louis, 
Missouri.    From  Illinois,  Missouri,  Arkansas. 

of  these  hematite  implements  were  introduced  into  the  state  through 
early  trades  with  middle  Mississippi  Valley  tribes." 

Hematite  objects  do  not  seem  to  have  served  as  tools  —  save  per 
haps  as  celts  and  axes  —  but  on  the  contrary  they  are  of  the  pro 
blematical  class.  The  bright  color  of  the  stone  and  its  peculiar  pro 
perties  doubtless  appealed  to  stone-age  man.  The  fact  that  hematite 
celts  are  found  in  graves  and  mounds  and  also  hematite  plummets, 
whereas  ordinary  stone  axes  are  seldom,  if  ever,  found  in  mounds  or 


HEMATITE  OBJECTS 


305 


FIG.  699.   (S.  1-2.)   Hematite  plummets,   grooved  in  the  centre.   Collection  of 
Henry  M.  Whelpley,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. 


306      THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  700.  (S.  1-2.)  These  objects  are  also  from  the  Andover  collection  and  show  the  va 
rious  types  of  plummets.  In  the  centre  is  a  fine  plummet  of  steel  gray  hematite,  very  hard. 
Beneath  it,  a  hematite  a  trifle  softer  in  which  there  are  some  flaws.  At  the  top,  an  un 
finished  hematite  pecked  and  ground  into  shape,  but  not  polished  or  grooved.  On  either 
side  of  the  centre,  ruder  hematite  plummets,  and  at  the  top,  to  the  left,  a  grooved  hema 
tite  object,  the  groove  extending  around  the  longest  periphery  of  the  object.  To  the  right 
is  a  small  plummet,  grooved  in  the  centre. 


HEMATITE   OBJECTS 


307 


graves,  would  strengthen  the  hypothesis  that  objects  made  of  this 
peculiar  stone  were  considered  apart  from  the  ordinary  run  of  arti 
facts. 

The  reduction  of  the  harder  hematites  to  symmetrical  plummets 
and  cones  must  have  been  a  severe  task  for  workmen  possessed  of  no 
metallic  tools.  Truly  the  ancient  artisan  who  had  the  patience  to 
cut  and  grind  gray  hematite  (the  hardest  of  all)  "  worked  at  his  task 
with  a  resolute  will."  It  must  be  remembered  that  there  are  not 
a  few  but  hundreds  of  these  hematite  problematical  forms  worked 
from  most  refractory  iron  ore. 


FIG.  701.  (S.  i-i.)  This  ornament  is  made  of 
hematite.  It  is  remarkable  in  that  both  ends  are 
decorated  by  notches.  On  the  upper  end  there 
are  eleven  notches  or  incised  lines;  on  the  lower 
or  broad  end  there  are  fourteen  lines.  This 
specimen  is  not  a  type  but  an  anomaly.  It  is  of 
heavy,  pure  hematite  and  not  of  stone  discol 
ored  by  iron  oxide  as  are  many  of  the  ornaments. 
It  was  extremely  difficult  to  work  because  of  the 
density  and  hardness  of  the  material.  Aside  from 
these  facts  this  form  is  peculiar.  The  edges  are 
slightly  beveled.  The  specimen  shows  unmistak 
able  evidence  of  antiquity  because  of  the  patina, 
and  the  cuttings  (striae)  are  irregular  and  have 
been  made  with  flint  and  not  with  steel.  Ross 
County,  Ohio.  Andover  collection. 


CHAPTER   XXXIV 

MISCELLANEOUS   OBJECTS 

AFTER  one  has  attempted  to  describe  and  illustrate  most  of  the 
types  of  ancient  artifacts  occurring  in  America,  one  discovers  that 
there  are  numerous  objects  which  scarcely  fall  under  any  of  the 
classifications.  These  I  have  placed  under  this  chapter  devoted  to 
miscellaneous  objects.  At  some  future  time  I  hope  to  consider  these 
at  greater  length,  for  it  will  be  quite  possible  to  devote  an  entire 
chapter  to  the  club  and  paddle-like  implements  of  the  Pacific  Coast, 
another  to  the  slate  knives  of  New  England,  and  additional  ones  to 
the  arrow-shaft  straighteners,  or  the  cup-stones  —  all  of  which  are 
illustrated  in  the  ensuing  pages. 

In  Figs.  702,  703,  and  703  A  are  shown  some  of  the  curious  stone 
club  and  paddle-like  implements  of  the  Pacific  Coast.  Reverend 
H.  C.  Meredith,  a  collector  of  some  experience  in  California,  called 
these  " stone  ceremonial  swords,"  and  described  those  shown  in 
Fig.  702  as  follows :  — 

"This  figure  shows  two  rare  ceremonial  knives.  No.  2  is  of  fine 
sandstone,  about  sixteen  inches  long,  with  a  broad  blade  that  is 
reduced  to  a  sharp  edge.  It  was  found  on  a  village-site  near  Yaca- 
ville,  and  would  make  a  formidable  weapon. 

"No.  3  is  a  double-edged  and  beautiful  specimen.  The  material 
is  mottled  green  and  white  serpentine.  It  is  finely  polished,  and  not 
much  less  than  eighteen  inches  long.  It  is  in  the  collection  of  Mr. 
A.  B.  Carr,  Etna  Mills.  Two  specimens  similar  to  this  one,  but  not 
nearly  so  fine,  are  in  the  Jewett  collection.  All  three  specimens  are 
from  Siskiyou.  Like  the  chipped  ceremonials,  these  knives  are  of 
extreme  age,  if  not  prehistoric.  Work  of  this  class  is  not  done  by 
the  Indians  of  to-day." 

Whether  the  paddle-shaped  implements  in  the  two  following 
figures  are  to  be  considered  as  "ceremonial  swords,"  I  am  not  suf 
ficiently  familiar  with  California  archaeology  to  state. 

Fig.  703  presents  three  remarkable  specimens  from  Oregon  and 
Colorado;  collection  of  E.  D.  Zimmerman,  Kutztown,  Pennsylvania. 
The  purpose  of  these  strange  objects  is  unknown  to  me.  They  are 


MISCELLANEOUS  OBJECTS 


309 


i 


pq 


/ 


310      THE  STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH  AMERICA 


FIG.  703.   (S.  about  1-3.)  Stone  clubs,  from  Oregon  and  Washington. 
Collection  of  E.  D.  Zimmerman. 


MISCELLANEOUS   OBJECTS 


wrought  with  considerable  skill  and  evidently  performed  some  func 
tion  in  ancient  times. 

Fig.  704  A  illustrates  four  of  the  curious  club-heads,  or  perforated 
stones,  common  in  California  and  Arizona.  Various  theories  have 
been  advanced  as  to  these;  the  most  sens 
ible  of  which  appears  to  me  to  be  the 
statement  that  they  were  made  use  of  as 
weights,  to  facilitate  the  use  of  digging- 
tools  or  sticks.  There  is  some  reason  for 
the  acceptance  of  this  theory,  as  the  discs 
are  found  in  regions  where  the  raising  of 
crops  by  means  of  irrigation  was  known  to 
the  natives. 

Fig-  7°5  is  an  illustration  of  a  singular 
tool-handle,  somewhat  common  near  the 
Columbia  River  and  farther  north  along  the 
Pacific  Coast.  A  fine  one  is  in  the  posses 
sion  of  Dr.  John  Fargo  of  Los  Angeles,  Cali 
fornia,  and  it  is  identical  with  this  one. 

Slate  was  made  use  of  by  the  New  Eng 
land  Indians  not  only  for  arrow-  and  spear- 
points  but  knives  as  well.  Fig.  707,  repro 
duced  from  Dr.  William  Beauchamp's  arti 
cle,1  shows  nine1  slate  knives  from  sites 
along  the  Seneca  and  Oneida  rivers  and 
Oneida  Lake,  western  New  York. 

In  Fig.  710  are  figured  two  beautiful  slate 
knives  from  the  Peabody  Museum  collec 
tion,  Salem,  Massachusetts. 

I  was  very  fortunate  in  procuring  for  ex 
amination  the  remarkable  specimen  shown 
in  Fig.  711.  It  presents  a  woman's  knife  of 
black  slate  in  the  original  handle.  When 
Mr.  B.  W.  Arnold  of  Albany  went  north  to 
Alaska  some  years  ago,  he  found  this  knife 
in  the  hands  of  a  woman  who  was  using  it 
in  cutting  open  fish.  He  purchased  it  from 
her  and  placed  it  in  his  collection.  It  illus 
trates  the  method  of  mounting. 


FIG.  703  A.  (S.  about  1-5.) 
Stone  club  from  near  Florence, 
Lane  County,  Oregon;  found 
on  a  village-site  about  three 
miles  from  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
A  duplicate  club  was  found 
at  the  same  place  later.  Col 
lection  of  A.  F.  Barrott, 
Owcgo,  New  York. 


"  Polished  Stone  Articles  used  by  the  New  York  Aborigine.^ 
York  State  Museum,  vol.  iv,  no.  18. 


Bulletin  of  the  New 


312      THE  STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  704.  (S.  about  1-3.)  Three  remarkable  specimens  from  Oregon  and  Colorado. 
E.  D.  Zimmerman's  collection. 


MISCELLANEOUS   OBJECTS 


313 


The  handle  is  crudely  cut  out  of  wood,  and  the  only  things  modern 
about  it  are  the  strings  which  hold  it  in  place,  they  being  ordinary 
twine. 

But  perhaps  as  interesting  as  any  other  of  the  objects  are  the  oval 
and  flat  stones  with  creases  or  depressions  across  them,  which  are 
supposed  to  be  the  result  of  straightening  or  reducing  arrow-shafts, 


FlG.  704  A.   (S.  1-3.)  Four  curious  club-heads  or  perforated  stones,  common 
in  California.    Beloit  College  collection. 

lance-handles,  and  other  long,  slender  objects.  All  of  those  shown 
in  Figs.  706,  708,  and  709  exhibit  differences.  Those  in  Fig.  706,  col 
lected  by  Professor  Montgomery,  are  neatly  made  and  ornament- 
like  in  shape. 

Mr.  Bardwell's  specimen,  Fig.  708,  is  an  ordinary  bit  of  sandstone 


314      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


on  which  there  are  two  deep  grooves  at  right  angles.  We  have  a 
number  of  them  in  our  Andover  collection,  and  I  have  shown  five 
in  Fig.  709. 

Most  archaeologists  agree  that  the  stones  were  used  for  the  pur 
pose  named.  Near  caverns,  rock-shelters,  and  along  bluffs  we  find 
that  the  surface  of  gritty  stories  or  ledges  exhibit  such  grooves. 
Fig.  712  is  a  sinew  stone,  or  an  oval  stone  much  creased  and  worn,  not 
by  friction  caused  by  arrow-shafts,  but  because  sinews  or  cords  have 
been  drawn  back  and  forth  against  the  edge  of  it.  There  is  another 
singular  grooved  stone  in  the  State  Museum  of  Iowa.  The  curator 
calls  it  a  stone  "corn-sheller,"  and  if  one  will  draw  an  ear  of  corn 
back  and  forth  over  the  surface  of  this  stone,  one  is  surprised  at  the 
ease  with  which  the  kernels  are  removed.  Fig.  715  illustrates  three 
unknown  objects  found  in  Pueblo  Bonito.  Fig.  716  is  interesting 
in  that  it  may  or  may  not  be  a  natural  formation.  It  was  found  on 
the  site  of  an  old  encampment  and  may  have  been  considered  by  the 
Indians  a  medicine-stone.  Figs.  717,  to  and  including  721,  I  shall 
refer  to  in  the  Conclusions  of  "The  Stone  Age." 

I  wish  to  speak  at  some 
length  on  Fig.  713.  This 
specimen  is  one  of  the  cup- 
stones  about  which  there 
has  been  so  much  discus- 


FIG.  705.  (S.  1-4.)  Stone  tool-handle.  Col 
lection  of  Frank  O.  Putnam,  Campbell,  Cali 
fornia. 


FIG.  706.  (S.  1-2.)  Grooved 
sandstone  arrow-  and  needle- 
sharpeners  found  near  the  surface 
of  a  mound,  North  Dakota.  Col 
lection  of  Henry  Montgomery. 


MISCELLANEOUS  OBJECTS 


315 


FIG.  707.   (S.  i-i.)  Slate  knives.    New  York  State  Museum  collection. 


316      THE   STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  708.  (S.  i -I.)  Grooved  stone  found  on  the  island  of  Martha's  Vineyard  by  Ralph 
D.  Bard  well.    Collection  of  Robert  D.  Barchvell,  Pittsfield,  Massachusetts. 


MISCELLANEOUS   OBJECTS 


317 


FIG.  709.   (S.  1-2.)  Grooved  stones  found  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States. 
Phillips  Academy  collection. 


3i8      THE  STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

sion.  It  is  something  over  ten  by  seven  and  a  half  inches  in  dia 
meter,  and  on  the  upper  surface  are  fifteen  distinct  cup-shaped 
depressions.  It  is  of  sandstone  and  about  two  inches  thick. 

A  great  deal  has  been  written  about  cup-stones,  as  reference  to 
the  Bibliography  will  attest.    The  pitted  hammer-stone,  the  cup- 


FIG.  710.  (S.  1-2.)  Slate  knives.  Peabody  Museum  collection,  Salem,  Massachusetts. 

stone,  and  the  crude  discoidal  are  more  or  less  related.  Cup-stones 
themselves  have  never  been  satisfactorily  explained,  and  it  is  my 
opinion  that  such  ones  as  are  shown  in  Fig.  713  mean  more  than  that 
they  were  ordinary  depressions  in  which  nuts  were  cracked.  How 
ever,  one  must  do  justice  to  those  who  believe  that  they  were  used 
for  that  purpose.  There  is  a  suggestion  along  the  lines  of  that 
theory  which  I  would  wish  to  make. 

The  Indians  used  large  quantities  of  hickory-nuts,  walnuts,  and 
butternuts.    The  early  historians  tell  us  that  they  threw  these  into 


MISCELLANEOUS   OBJECTS 


319 


FIG.  711.  (S.  i-i.)  Slate  knife  in  handle.    B.  \Y.  Arnold's  collection,  Albany,  New  York. 


OF  ~HE 

UNIVERSITY 


320      THE  STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FlG.  712.   (S.  2-3.)  Sinew  stone  found  near  New  Berlin,  New  York,  on  the  surface. 
Collection  of  Henry  W.  Bagg,  New  Berlin,  New  York. 


FIG.  713.   (S.  1-3.)  Cup-stone  from  the  Mohawk  Valley,  western 
New  York.    Phillips  Academy  collection. 


MISCELLANEOUS   OBJECTS 


321 


FIG.  714.  (S.  1-4.)  Stone  corn-sheller(?);  made  of  gray  quartzite.  The  plane  surface  is 
eight  by  fifteen  inches.  Shows  fractures  on  nearly  all  sides,  as  though  it  had  been  much 
larger.  The  corrugations  have  a  sharp,  cutting-like  edge.  Found  in  a  creek  in  Kansas. 
Collection  of  the  Historical  Department  of  Iowa. 


FIG.  715.  (S.  1-6.)  A  stone  with  square  hole 
(for  unknown  purpose),  a  sandal  last,  and  a 
stone  sword  from  the  Chaco  Group.  Phillips 
Academy  collection. 


322       THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH    AMERICA 


FIG.  716.  (S.  1-2.)  Cup-stone.    Collection  of  Logan  Museum,  Beloit,  Wisconsin. 

kettles  of  hot  water;  the  oil  rising  to  the  top,  they  skimmed  it  off 
for  future  use. 

On  such  a  stone  as  is  illustrated  fifteen  nuts  could  be  placed  at  one 
time  and  crushed  by  a  single  blow  of  a  heavy,  flat  slab.  If  they  used 
cup-stones  for  this  purpose,  they  would  naturally  employ  stones  in 
which  there  were  many  cups  rather  than  the  average  stones  con 
taining  one  or  two  cups.  If  so  used,  the  work  proceeded  rapidly;  one 
person  crushing  and  two  others  placing  the  nuts  in  position.  As  the 
stone  weighs  no  more  than  six  or  seven  pounds,  it  could  be  quickly 
raised  and  the  contents  dumped  into  a  receptacle. 


MISCELLANEOUS   OBJECTS  323 


FIG.  717.  (S.  1-2.)  Skull  from  a  Florida  shell  heap.  (See  page  351.)  Peabody  Museum 
collection,  Cambridge,  Massachusetts. 


324      THE   STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 


FIG.  718.   (S.  i -i.)  Grooved  stone  axe  from  Allington,  Washington 
County,  Wisconsin.    Collection  of  the  Milwaukee  Public  Museum. 


MISCELLANEOUS   OBJECTS 


325 


FIG.  719.   (S.  1-5.)   A  group  of  bird-stones,  boat-shaped  objects  and  other  problematical 
forms.    J.  T.  Recder's  collection,  Houghton,  Michigan. 


326      THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 


FlG.  720.   (S.  2-3.)   Problematical  forms  from  near  Burlington,  Vermont. 
Collection  of  G.  H.  Perkins. 


MISCELLANEOUS   OBJECTS 


327 


FIG.  720/1.    (S.  1-4.)  A  group  of  mound  pipes.  L.  W.  Hills  collection, 
Fort  Wayne,  Indiana. 


328      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

But  while  this  may  be  true,  it  has  always  seemed  to  me  that  the 
pitted  stones  may  be  made  use  of  in  some  way  as  controlling  or 
regulating  the  apparatus  used  in  drilling.  While  all  the  details  of 
such  an  explanation  were  never  clear,  yet  it  seemed  more  plausible 
than  the  statement  that  the  stone  was  used  as  a  common  nut-cracker. 
There  is  another  observation  to  be  made  which,  it  seems  to  me, 
militates  against  the  theory  that  it  was  necessary  to  work  out  cir 
cular  depressions  in  order  to  make  a  nut-cracker.  If  one  will  select 
a  flat,  smooth  slab  and  place  a  dozen  walnuts  upon  it,  and  strike 
with  another  flat  slab  evenly  upon  these  nuts,  one  finds  that  they 
are  crushed  quite  as  completely  as  if  placed  in  the  cup-stones  proper. 
The  Indians  wished  the  oil  rather  than  the  kernels;  and  preferred 
the  nuts  completely  crushed.  And  for  all  practical  purposes  in  nut- 
cracking,  two  flat  surfaces  are  fully  as  good  as  a  surface  which  has 
been  cupped.  Again,  stones  having  deep  pits  on  their  surfaces  pre 
vent  the  crushing  of  more  than  half  of  each  nut.  If  one  studies  the 
cup-stones  carefully,  one  will  observe  that  some  of  the  pitted  stones 
are  very  smooth,  others  may  be  rough.  In  the  exact  centre  of  the 
pits  is  a  small  depression.  In  some  instances  this  depression  appears 
as  if  it  was  the  result  of  a  revolving  object;  in  other  words,  a  drill. 
I  cannot  believe  that  the  cracking  of  nuts  in  these  depressions  would 
produce  the  effect  just  described. 


MISCELLANEOUS   OBJECTS 


329 


Fir,.  721.    (S.  1-2.)  Front  and  side  view  of  an  effigy  in  stone.   Collection  of  Edward  Beatty, 

Santa  Rosa,  California. 


CHAPTER  XXXV 

THE  STONE  AGE  IN  EASTERN  CANADA,  UTAH,  AND  DAKOTA 

(Written  for  "  The  Stone  Age  "  by  Henry  Montgomery,  Ph.D.,  University  of  Toronto) 

EASTERN    CANADA 

FOR  the  most  part  throughout  Ontario,  Quebec,  and  the  more 
eastern  provinces  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  the  ancient  stone  and 
bone  and  other  objects  of  handiwork  of  the  aborigines  are  similar  or 
nearly  similar  to  those  found  in  the  New  England  States  of  the 
Union.  There  are,  however,  some  exceptions  more  or  less  marked. 
The  history  of  the  seventeenth  century  tells  some  interesting  things 
about  the  aboriginal  peoples  of  this  part  of  Canada.  To  some  extent 
the  location  and  movements  of  the  Algonquins,  Hurons,  and  Iroquois 
("  Five  Nations")  have  become  known.  But  the  knowledge  of  these 
and  of  their  predecessors  in  that  region  is  far  too  limited.  Much 
remains  to  be  learned  about  the  occupation  of  the  country  during 
the  preceding  centuries.  Archaeological  work  appears  to  have  re 
vealed  several  occupations,  and  the  implements,  utensils,  and  orna 
ments  of  different  tribes  have  probably  been  mixed.  Hence,  it  is 
often  difficult  to  distinguish  them  with  certainty. 

Some  of  these  objects  of  manufacture  have  been  found  uncovered 
upon  the  surface  of  the  ground,  or  partially  covered  by  the  soil; 
others  have  been  dug  or  ploughed  out  by  the  farmer  and  road- 
maker  in  their  operations ;  and  other  artifacts  as  well  as  human  skele 
tons  have  been  taken  from  pits  or  excavations  six  to  eight  feet  in 
depth.  In  only  a  few  localities  of  eastern  Canada  have  mounds  been 
discovered  containing  specimens  of  the  work  of  ancient  or  prehis 
toric  man.  There  have  been  found,  however,  numerous  aboriginal 
village-sites  with  many  bits  of  pottery,  caches  of  charred  corn, 
and  various  sorts  of  kitchen  refuse  and  primitive  domestic  tools  and 
ornaments. 

The  following  are  the  principal  kinds  of  ancient  artifacts  found 
in  this  part  of  the  Dominion:  - 

Bone  articles,  such  as  needles,  awls,  knives,  scrapers,  and  harpoons. 


EASTERN   CANADA  331 

Shell  objects,  mostly  made  from  marine  shells  which  had  been  ob 
tained  in  tropical  or  sub-tropical  seas. 

Rude  chert,  quartzite,  and  flint  objects,  some  of  which  are  ovate- 
leaf-shaped,  much  like  the  form  of  certain  palaeoliths  of  Dordogne, 
France. 

Drills  or  borers  made  of  chert  and  quartzite. 

Arrow-heads  of  chert,  quartzite,  and  flint,  barbed  and  unbarbed, 
and  of  various  forms. 

Spears  of  slate,  often  having  the  tang  laterally  serrated. 

Stone  knives  and  scrapers,  rude  or  well-finished;  generally  made 
of  limestone  or  of  chert. 

The  chert  used  in  the  manufacture  of  scrapers,  drills,  and  arrow 
heads  was  doubtless  procured  from  the  Devonian  rocks  in  south 
western  Ontario,  where  it  occurs  in  abundance  near  Lakes  Erie 
and  Huron. 

Stone  axes  and  adzes,  often  called  "  celts."  These  are  usually 
made  of  amphibole  and  hornblende,  related  minerals,  one  a  light- 
green  and  the  latter  dark-green  in  color,  and  both  being  hard,  ten 
acious,  and  durable.  Occasionally,  however,  celts  of  grieissoid  ma 
terial  are  found.  In  nearly  all  cases  these  wedge-shaped  axes  or 
celts  have  good  form  and  are  highly  polished.  No  doubt  they  were 
sometimes  used  as  spades  or  digging-tools. 

Well-made  gouges,  of  the  same  minerals  as  those  in  the  "celts," 
also  occur  in  many  localities. 

Pipes  of  sandstone,  limestone,  and  quartzite.  Usually  these  ex 
hibit  good  workmanship.  Examples  from  Ontario  are  not  wanting 
in  which  the  bowl  alone  consists  of  stone,  each  having  a  hor 
izontal  opening  for  the  insertion  of  a  bone  or  wooden  stem.  Some 
have  a  perforation  at  the  bottom  bored  diagonally,  probably  for  the 
suspension  of  an  ornament.  Occasionally  one  is  found  having  stem 
and  bowl  in  one  piece,  and  these  are  chiefly  made  from  a  compara 
tively  hard  variety  of  steatite  or  soapstone.  Such  are  more  fre 
quently  found  northwards  toward  Hudson  Bay,  and  they  may  per 
haps  be  referred  to  the  Eskimo,  as  steatite  is  used  by  this  people 
in  the  manufacture  of  pipes  as  well  as  of  culinary  utensils.  A  pipe 
made  from  Mexican  or  Utah  onyx,  and  having  a  human  face-mask 
carved  upon  it,  has  been  found  in  southwestern  Ontario. 

Gorgets.  These  are  of  many  kinds  as  to  their  form  and  also  the 
stone  from  which  they  are  made.  Circular,  oval,  cylindrical,  tubular, 
and  elongate  flattened  forms  occur.  The  last-named  are  often  nearly 


332      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

rectangular,  flat,  polished  pieces  of  stone,  perforated  by  one,  two,  or 
three  holes.  These  are  sometimes  known  as  banner-stones.  The 
smaller  ones  may  have  been  used  as  ornaments  in  the  head-dress, 
a  cord  of  the  hair  of  the  head  being  fastened  through  one  of  the 
perforations,  and  feathers  inserted  in  the  others.  The  banner-stone 
with  a  single  central  perforation  is  somewhat  rare,  those  with  two 
or  three  perforations  being  more  numerous.  Banner-stones  of  red 
dish  hematitic  slate  have  recently  been  found  here;  but  striped 
Huronian  slate  from  the  rocks  of  northern  Ontario  is  the  usual 
material  from  which  they  have  been  fashioned. 

Amulets,  charms,  or  ceremonial  stones.  These  are  bird-like  or 
animal-like  in  shape,  or  rather  they  have  the  form  of  some  imagin 
ary  animal  partly  avian  and  partly  mammalian.  There  are  holes 
bored  diagonally  through  portions  of  the  lower  side,  apparently  for 
suspension  of  these  stones  by  strings.  Amulets  are  usually  three  or 
four  inches  long.  Most  of  them  are  regularly  formed  and  beautifully 
polished.  The  material  is  Huronian  slate.  But  one  recently  ob 
tained  by  the  writer  is  of  limestone,  and  has  a  length  of  nineteen 
inches,  a  height  of  six  inches,  and  a  thickness  of  five  inches.  The 
holes  are  large  and  extend  from  side  to  side  in  the  upper  part  of 
what  represents  the  neck  and  back  of  the  bird. 

Copper  artifacts  are  not  uncommon  in  Ontario  and  some  other 
eastern  localities,  although  they  are  not  at  all  plentiful.  The  ma 
terial  is  native  copper  from  Michigan  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Su 
perior.  Occasionally  native  silver  occurs  in  spots  throughout  the 
article.  Well-formed  celts  or  axes,  and  spears  are  found.  Knives  and 
beads  also  occur.  The  copper  celt  often  has  a  flat  side  and  a  sloping 
raised  side,  the  latter  consisting  of  two  flat  faces  sloping  laterally 
from  a  central  longitudinal  elevation.  Both  sides  of  the  spear  slope 
toward  the  edge  in  a  similar  manner;  there  is  a  tang  for  insertion 
into  a  wooden  or  other  handle,  and  there  are  usually  two  lateral 
projections  at  the  base  of  the  blade.  The  beads  are  of  two  kinds, 
namely,  small,  circular  beads  rudely  fashioned,  yet  in  shape  some 
what  like  the  ordinary  modern  beads  of  white  people ;  and  the  long, 
thin  leaf  of  copper  loosely  rolled,  to  constitute  a  small  tube  through 
which  the  string  had  to  pass. 

Pottery  or  earthenware  objects.  The  pottery  of  this  region  is 
greatly  broken.  It  consists  principally  of  sherds  or  fragments  of 
vessels  of  different  sizes  and  designs.  There  are,  however,  a  few 
perfect  vessels  of  pottery,  and  there  are  many  unbroken  pottery 


WESTERN    CANADA  333 

tobacco-pipes  here.  The  forms  of  the  pipes  and  their  decorative  de 
signs  are  numerous.  Some  of  these  are  shown  in  Fig.  434,  Toronto 
University  collection. 

With  regard  to  the  date  of  the  aforesaid  objects  of  man's  handi 
work,  it  may  here  be  stated  that  none  of  them  are  very  recent,  and 
that  only  the  simpler  forms,  such  as  some  of  the  arrow-heads,  scrapers, 
and  skewers,  were  made  within  the  last  four  or  five  hundred  years. 
There  can  be  little  doubt  that  most  of  them  were  made  many 
centuries  ago;  although,  of  course,  many  of  them  may  have  been 
used  in  more  recent  times  by  the  aboriginal  successors  of  their 
manufacturers. 

THE    PLAINS    OF    WESTERN    AND    CENTRAL    CANADA 

In  the  region  of  the  great  plains  between  Lake  Superior  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains  the  prehistoric  artifacts  differ  greatly  from  those 
of  eastern  Canada.  Here  are  many  earthworks  of  the  ancient  mound- 
builders,  some  of  which  have  yielded  characteristic  mound  products, 
differing  considerably  from  the  stone-age  relics  of  the  East ;  and  in 
this  region  also  are  found  large  numbers  of  grooved  hammers  and 
mauls  rarely  found  in  Ontario  and  Quebec.  In  Ontario  the  stone 
"celt"  or  wedge  is  very  common;  but  in  Manitoba,  with  the  excep 
tion  of  the  extreme  eastern  part  of  the  province,  the  celt  is  prac 
tically  absent.  With  its  decline  and  disappearance  farther  west, 
and  especially  towards  the  borders  of  Saskatchewan,  the  grooved 
hammers  appear  in  great  numbers,  and  in  a  great  variety  of  forms 
and  sizes.  Stone  discs  and  grooved  axes  likewise  occur  on  the  plains. 
Another  stone  tool  absent  from  Manitoba  is  the  amphibole  gouge, 
of  which  well-formed,  beautiful  specimens  occur  in  Ontario  and 
farther  east. 

Stone  hammers  and  mauls.  The  hammers  and  mauls  are  long  and 
short,  broad  or  thick,  and  narrow,  nearly  uniform  in  thickness,  or 
else  tapering  more  or  less  toward  one  end.  Most  of  them  are  be 
tween  four  and  six  inches  in  length,  but  some  have  been  found 
almost  a  foot  in  length  and  six  inches  in  thickness.  These  latter 
are,  of  course,  very  heavy,  and  must  have  been  used  in  pounding  or 
splitting  hard  or  tough,  heavy  substances.  The  correct  name  for 
such  is  beetle,  maul,  or  mallet.  One  specimen  of  a  grooved  hammer 
found  in  the  region  is  made  from  a  true  hematite  nodule  and  is 
only  three  fourths  of  an  inch  in  length.  Some  mauls  and  hammers 
have  a  complete  continuous  groove  near  the  middle  of  the  stone; 


334      THE   STONE   AGE    IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

but  in  most  cases  there  is  half  an  inch  or  more  ungrooved,  the  furrow 
ceasing  at  the  point  from  which  the  handle  of  the  implement  is  di 
rected.  The  usual  rocks  employed  in  their  manufacture  are  gneiss 
and  granite;  but  limestone  and  amphibole  sometimes  occur.  Un 
grooved  mauls  and  hammers  have  been  found,  and  occasionally  one 
almost  spherical  in  shape.  No  fluted  specimens  have  been  reported. 

Stone  discs.  Circular  stone  plates  or  discs  are  not  of  frequent  oc 
currence  in  this  region;  yet  quite  a  number  have  been  found.  Like 
the  beetles  and  hammers,  they  are  generally  turned  up  by  the  farm 
er's  plough  in  the  cultivation  of  his  farm.  These  discs  are  made  of 
fine-grained  sandstone  and  gneissoid  rocks,  and  a  few  have  been 
found  bearing  carvings  upon  them.  In  a  measure  these  Manitoba 
discs  remind  one  of  the  interesting  stone  discs  and  plates  of  Alabama 
described  by  Mr.  Clarence  B.  Moore,  but  they  are  usually  of  a 
simpler  type  than  those  of  the  South. 

Stone  spade  or  shovel.  In  a  mound  in  1907  the  writer  found  a 
stone  implement  which  strongly  resembles  the  modern  shovel  in 
form  and  size. 

Stone  axes.  Only  a  few  axes  are  known  here,  and  they  have  pro 
minent  ridges  bounding  the  central  encircling  groove. 

Arrow-heads  of  quartzite  and  flint  are  tolerably  numerous.  Very 
few  examples  have  been  taken  from  the  earthworks,  nearly  all  having 
been  discovered  by  digging  or  ploughing  the  soil.  Most  of  the  latter 
are  rudely  finished,  while  those  discovered  in  the  older  mounds 
usually  exhibit  superior  workmanship. 

One  specimen  of  blade  or  unbarbed  arrow-head  in  the  possession 
of  the  writer  has  a  well-marked  patina  over  its  entire  surface.  It  is 
about  three  inches  in  length,  and  an  inch  and  three  quarters  wide 
at  its  base.  Its  material  is  translucent  flint  or  agate.  The  patination 
of  this  flint  artifact  must  have  required  a  long  period  of  time,  per 
haps  one  thousand  years  or  more.  It  was  ploughed  out  of  the  prairie 
at  a  depth  of  five  or  six  inches. 

A  few  flint  scrapers  have  been  collected. 

Pipes  of  stone.  These  are  straight  tubular  bowls  made  of  catlin- 
ite  or  red  "pipestone"  from  Minnesota,  beautifully  formed  and 
polished.  They  have  been  found  only  in  the  burial-mounds,  and  they 
do  not  at  all  resemble  the  modern  Indian  pipes. 

Objects  made  from  bone.  These  are  not  numerous  in  this  district. 
They  consist  chiefly  of  bone  skewers  and  awls,  whistles  made  from 
the  ulna  of  the  wing  of  the  eagle  or  other  large  bird  of  flight  (see 


WESTERN   CANADA  335 

Fig.  528),  bone  armlets  and  beads.  The  armlets  have  holes  by 
which  they  were  evidently  laced  or  fastened  upon  the  arms,  and  they 
are  usually  decorated  by  grooves  and  notches.  They  are  made  from 
broad,  flat  bones,  generally  the  scapulae  of  the  larger  animals.  A  bone 
blade  or  knife  is  sometimes  found.  A  comb-like  hide-dressing  bone 
tool,  an  arrow-nock,  and  primitive  bone  beads  have  been  recently 
taken  from  mounds  by  the  writer.  Only  a  very  few  simple  orna 
ments  of  deer  antler  have  been  found. 

Shell  objects.  There  is  a  variety  of  articles  here  made  from  sea- 
shells  and  river-shells.  A  large  spoon  is  made  from  one  of  the 
valves  of  the  shell  of  the  fresh-water  mollusc  Unio.  But  the  major 
ity  are  ornaments,  and  are  made  out  of  univalve  shells  from  the 
ocean.  Oblong,  flat  pendants,  large  circular  rings,  oval,  circular,  and 
tubular  beads  of  shell  occur. 

Objects  of  copper  consist  chiefly  of  thin  sheets  of  native  copper 
rolled  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  tubular  beads.  Sometimes  larger 
pieces  of  rude  sheets  of  copper  have  been  found.  This  copper  must 
have  been  brought  from  some  locality  near  Lake  Superior,  where 
copper-mining  was  carried  on  in  prehistoric  times. 

Pottery  or  earthenware  objects.  Numerous  fragments  of  pottery 
bowls,  dishes,  cups,  and  other  vessels  occur  in  some  localities, 
usually  in  fields  where  the  sod  has  been  ploughed  for  the  first  time, 
and  where  the  location  is  convenient  to  a  stream  or  lake.  Occasion 
ally  pottery  sherds  have  been  found  at  greater  depths,  even  to  two 
or  three  feet.  In  such  cases  they  were  evidently  covered  by  olay 
and  sands  deposited  from  the  overflow  of  the  waters  in  some  former 
period  of  time,  no  doubt  many  centuries  ago.  In  some  of  the  most 
ancient  burial-mounds  a  few  perfect  vessels  of  pottery  have  been 
discovered.  These  are  small  urns  with  flaring  rims  and  more  or  less 
decoration,  the  principal  part  of  which  consists  in  most  instances 
of  a  continuous,  deep  groove  running  spirally  around  the  entire  body 
of  the  vessel. 

Only  one  example  of  a  pipe  made  of  pottery  has  yet  been  reported 
from  this  region.  This  is  a  large  pipe,  having  bowl  and  stem  in  one 
piece,  found  by  the  writer  in  a  burial-mound  in  1908.  Both  the  stem 
and  bowl  are  decorated  with  grooves. 

The  urns  here  referred  to  and  the  straight  tubular  stone  pipes 
previously  mentioned  are  precisely  similar  to  most  of  those  found 
by  the  writer  in  numerous  mounds  in  Dakota  some  years  ago.  The 
shell  articles,  pendants,  rings,  and  beads  also  afford  strong  evidence 


336      THE   STONE   AGE   IN    NORTH   AMERICA 

in  support  of  the  view  that  they  who  reared  most,  if  not  all,  of  the 
mounds  of  Manitoba  and  North  Dakota  were  one  and  the  same 
people. 

THE    STONE   AGE    IN    UTAH 

The  remains  of  prehistoric  and  ancient  people  hitherto  discovered 
in  Utah  consist  principally  of  the  ruins  of  various  houses  in  the  cliffs 
and  valleys,  and  the  contents  thereof.  Besides  these  there  are  ancient 
irrigation  ditches  of  some  size  and  importance  in  the  southern  part 
of  Utah.  There  are  also  petroglyphs  or  rock  carvings  of  various 
kinds  upon  the  vertical  faces  of  many  of  the  rock  cliffs;  and  what 
appear  to  be  tracks  or  prints  of  the  human  foot  in  volcanic  rock  have 
been  found  in  one  or  two  places. 

While  the  houses  whose  ruins  occur  in  the  broad  valleys  of  Utah 
vary  in  size  and  in  the  number  of  rooms,  and  also  in  the  structure  of 
their  floors  and  the  interior  finish  of  their  walls,  they  may  all  be 
regarded  as  belonging  to  the  same  class  of  mud  or  adobe  structures. 
The  cliff-houses,  however,  differ  in  so  far  as  some  are  stone  buildings, 
others  mostly  adobe,  and  others  small  caves  just  large  enough  for 
occupation  as  dwellings  or  for  use  as  storage-bins. 

The  more  important  artifacts  obtained  from  the  ruins  of  Utah 
are  here  enumerated  and  described :  - 

Objects  made  of  Wood 

Wooden  pail  or  bucket,  from  a  cave  (see  Fig.  632).  This  is  formed 
by  digging  out  a  piece  of  the  trunk  of  a  tree. 

Flails  of  several  shapes  are  found.  These  are  from  three  to  four 
feet  long,  and  have  one  end  wide  and  flat  for  a  length  of  fifteen  to 
eighteen  inches.  They  were  used  for  beating  the  yucca  plant  and 
cedar  bark  in  making  yarn  or  thread.  Doubtless  some  of  these 
wooden  articles  may  have  been  used  also  for  digging  in  the  earth. 

Two  atlatls  from  this  region  have  been  described,  one  by  Professor 
Otis  T.  Mason  in  1892,  and  the  second  by  the  present  writer  in  1894. 
(See  The  Archceolo gist  for  November,  1894,  "Prehistoric  Man  in 
Utah,"  by  Henry  Montgomery.)  The  latter  atlatl  or  throwing-stick 
had  two  loops  of  rawhide  and  a  shallow  groove  upon  it.  There  had 
been  a  piece  broken  off  the  upper  part. 

Wooden  pipes  were  discovered  in  1894,  along  with  mummies  and 
relics,  in  cave-house  ruins  in  eastern  Utah.  These  are  nearly  ovoid 
in  shape;  the  passage  is  not  curved  or  bent;  and  they  have  short 
bone  stems  cemented  in  position  for  use. 


UTAH  337 

Textiles 

Knitted  and  plaited  articles  occur. 

Corn-sacks  made  of  the  fibre  of  the  bark  of  the  cedar  tree  have 
been  obtained  by  me  in  the  caves  of  some  of  the  canyon  Cliff- 
Dwellers. 

Baskets,  mats,  and  sandals,  chiefly  of  yucca  fibre,  have  been  found 
with  the  bodies  of  half  a  dozen  mummies  and  elsewhere  in  caves 
in  eastern  Utah.  These  show  artistic  skill  in  their  manufacture. 
In  January,  February,  and  March,  1894,  Mr.  C.  B.  Lang  made  an 
important  collection  in  three  caves  of  San  Juan  County,  Utah, 
which  he  asked  the  writer  to  examine  at  that  time  and  to  make 
report  thereon  to  the  scientific  and  other  journals.  With  that  end 
in  view  I  made  an  examination  and  had  a  number  of  photographs  of 
the  collection  made.  Only  a  few  of  these  were  used  in  publication. 
Some  of  the  remaining  unpublished  photographs  are  herein  repro 
duced  for  the  edification  of  our  readers.  (See  Fig.  631,  pair  of  leg 
gings,  and  Fig.  634,  birch  bark.)  Mr.  George  H.  Pepper  described 
a  number  of  similar  articles  from  other  localities  in  Utah,  and  re 
ferred  them  to  a  distinct  race  or  tribe  to  which  he  gave  the  name 
"  basket-makers."  As  sacks  and  mats  of  much  the  same  character 
have  been  found  by  the  writer  in  other  caves  along  writh  the  ordin 
ary  Cliff-Dweller's  artifacts  and  skeletons,  the  propriety  of  sepa 
rating  these  people  from  the  Cliff -Dwellers  proper  seems,  for  the 
present  at  least,  somewhat  doubtful. 

Feather  Objects 

Robes  and  mantles  or  shawls  made  of  the  feathers  of  wild  turkeys 
were  also  taken  from  cave-house  ruins  in  eastern  Utah.  Several 
mummies  were  found  clothed  with  such  feather  robes,  and  some 
wrearing  sandals  of  yucca  fibre,  and  others  having  deerskin  coverings 
upon  their  feet. 

Bone  Objects 

Pipe-stems,  pieces  of  hollow  bone  of  suitable  length,  cut  from  the 
hollow  wing-bones  of  birds. 

Skewers  and  awls  of  bone  are  numerous. 

Circular  and  oblong  pieces  of  bone.  No  doubt  some  of  these  were 
used  in  playing  games. 

Beads  of  bone  of  various  sizes. 


338      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

Objects  made  from  Teeth 

Beads  made  out  of  teeth,  probably  of  the  mountain  lion,  an  animal 
which  is  present  in  considerable  numbers  in  the  Wahsatch  and 
Uintah  Mountains. 

Shell  Objects 
Beads  made  out  of  shells  from  the  ocean. 

Stone  Objects 

Metates  and  rubbing-stones,  for  grinding  maize.  These  corn- 
grinding  mills  are  often  quite  large,  and  sometimes  weigh  as  much 
as  a  hundred  pounds.  In  the  year  1892  the  writer  found  a  heavy 
metate  in  a  cliff-house  in  a  place  one  thousand  feet  above  the  stream 
in  the  bottom  of  the  canyon,  and  in  a  spot  very  difficult  of  access. 

Arrow-heads  of  obsidian,  chalcedony,  and  quartz.  They  are  most 
ly  small,  barbed,  and  well-formed.  Many  of  them  are  translucent,  and 
some  are  transparent.  Both  obsidian  and  chalcedony  occur  in  nature 
in  southern  Utah. 

One  straight  pipe-bowl  of  catlinite  was  found  in  a  cave-house  in 
San  Juan  County.  This  may  perhaps  indicate  intercourse  with  the 
tribes  of  Dakota  or  Minnesota. 

A  nearly  pear-shaped  pipe-bowl  of  beautifully  polished  onyx  was 
found  with  mummified  human  bodies  and  wooden  flails  and  fibre 
mats  in  a  cave  in  eastern  Utah  (see  Fig.  436).  It  had  a  stem  of 
bone  in  position,  fastened  in  place  by  some  sort  of  black  cement  or 
fireproof  substance,  which  also  lined  the  inside  of  the  pipe-bowl. 

Stone  mauls  and  hammers  are  to  be  mentioned  as  occurring  in 
Utah.  They  are  generally  provided  with  a  groove  in  which  the 
pliant,  tough,  wooden  handle  is  fastened. 

Grooved  stone  axes  likewise  occur. 

Oblong  and  other-shaped  pendants  and  ornaments  of  turquoise 
and  green  variscite  have  been  found  in  the  valley  houses. 

Pottery  Objects 

Pipe-bowls  of  several  kinds,  straight  and  curved.  Some  well- 
formed  pottery  pipes  were  found  by  the  writer  in  1890  in  valley- 
house  ruins. 

Balls  an  inch  or  two  in  diameter  made  of  partially  baked  clay. 
Probably  used  for  games  of  some  sort. 


DAKOTA  339 

Vessels  in  the  form  of  bowls  and  jugs.    The  bowls  are  of  regular    . 
form,  well    glazed  and  tastefully  decorated  with  painted  designs, 
mostly  on  the  inside. 

The  jars  have  one  or  two  handles,  and  are  of  many  sizes,  some 
being  very  large.  Occasionally  the  jars  are  highly  embellished  ex 
ternally  by  painted  designs  of  various  and  interesting  kinds.  Sim 
ilar  bowls,  jars,  and  pipes  of  pottery  are  found  in  both  the  valley- 
and  the  cliff-house  ruins. 

That  the  people  who  built  and  inhabited  the  cave  and  cliff-houses 
and  the  valley-houses  were  one  and  the  same  race  of  people  can 
hardly  be  doubted.  This  was  pointed  out  by  the  writer  in  1894. 
The  stone  corn-mills,  the  pipes,  the  arrow-points,  the  bowls  and  jars 
of  pottery,  are  similar.  The  house  structures  were,  of  course,  slightly 
different,  owing  to  the  difference  in  their  environment.  But  both 
peoples  were  agriculturists,  both  built  small  rooms  or  houses  for 
storing  corn,  gourds,  water,  and  implements,  both  had  arrows  for 
defense  and  the  chase,  and  both  manufactured  superior  pottery 
similar  in  the  quality  of  the  material  and  also  in  decoration. 

THE    STONE    AGE    IN    DAKOTA 

The  former  Territory  of  Dakota  included  that  portion  of  the 
country  now  forming  the  States  of  North  and  South  Dakota. 

The  ancient  specimens  of  handiwork  in  the  Dakota  Territory  of 
the  early  " eighties"  comprised  surface  "  finds,"  which  were  mostly 
stone  mauls,  hammers,  and  axes,  rude  bone  and  pottery  articles  of 
old  village-sites,  and  also  various  kinds  of  mound  products. 

The  principal  artifacts  are  here  enumerated :  - 

Hide  and  Bark 

Leather  or  tanned  hide,  found  occasionally  in  mound  burial-pits. 
Although  evidently  very  old,  it  appears  to  have  been  carefully 
tanned,  and  to  have  been  part  of  the  hide  of  a  buffalo. 

Baskets  made  from  the  bark  of  the  birch  tree.  These  are  small 
and  are  nearly  all  of  similar  pattern.  Usually  the  basket  consists  of 
but  one  piece  of  bark  cut  in  such  a  manner  that  it  could  be  bent  and 
fashioned  into  a  neat  basket  and  stitched  together  where  the  parts 
overlapped.  Sometimes  two  and  even  three  rows  of  holes  are  pre 
sent,  showing  great  regularity,  and  that  a  small  needle  and  thread 
must  have  IKHMI  used  in  the  work. 


340      THE  STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

Objects  made  from  Deer  A  ntlers 

Pear-shaped  deer  antler  pipe-bowls,  three  and  one  half  inches 
long,  and  two  and  one  fourth  inches  wide  at  the  top,  have  been 
found  by  the  writer.  (See  Fig.  428,  F.) 

Deer  antler,  perforated  near  one  end. 

Deer  antler  tyne,  perforated  and  notched.  Perhaps  this  served 
as  a  message  stick. 

Deer  antler  tyne,  peculiarly  cut  and  furrowed.  Probably  a  tool. 
(See  Fig.  542.) 

Bone  Objects 

Bone  harpoons  for  spearing  or  catching  large  fishes  such  as  the 
Great  Lake  pike  of  Devils  Lake. 

Bone  anklet,  with  ornamental  carving,  and  having  holes  near  two 
opposing  margins  for  lace-strings,  and  other  holes  perhaps  for  the 
attachment  of  ornaments. 

Bone  tubes  or  pipe-stems,  cut  from  the  hollow  bones  of  birds' 
wings. 

Bone  awls,  needles,  and  knife-blades. 

Shell  Objects 

These  comprise  objects  made  from  fresh-water  shells  as  well  as 
those  made  from  ocean-shells. 

Among  these  are  the  following :  — 

Circular  pearly  ornaments  like  buttons,  with  a  central  aperture 
and  four  marginal  notches  at  regular  intervals.  Large  pearly  shell 
rings  thicker  and  wider  on  one  side.  (See  Fig.  543,  E.)  Usually  more 
than  twenty  of  these  rings  have  been  found  together  near  a  human 
skull  and  in  such  a  position  that  there  seems  no  doubt  they  had 
formed  the  principal  part  of  a  necklace. 

Oblong  pearly  pendants,  notched  near  one  end  for  the  cord  of 
attachment,  and  decorated  with  four  or  five  notches  on  the  other 
extremity.  (See  Fig.  528.) 

Long  beads  made  from  the  columella  of  shells  of  the  ocean  gastero- 
pod,  Fulgur  perversa,  of  frequent  occurrence  also  in  the  mounds  of 
the  Mississippi  Valley.  (See  Fig.  543,  D.) 

Small  shell  beads  made  by  grinding  the  ocean  shells  Nerita, 
Natica,  and  Marginella  on  the  shoulder  of  the  spire.  (See  Fig. 
543,  G.) 

Scoop  or  spoon,  made  from  a  valve  of  the  bivalve  mollusc  Unio, 


DAKOTA  341 

the  common  fresh-water  mussel.    This  has  a  very  short  handle  cut 
on  it,  and  it  is  ornamented  with  a  few  notches  on  the  margin. 

Stone  Objects 

Sharpening-stones.  Ovoid  objects  made  of  coarse  sandstone  and 
having  a  groove  in  the  centre  of  one  side.  These  were  for  sharpen 
ing  bone  awls  and  needles  and  probably  for  grinding  shells  and  other 
articles  into  the  desired  shapes. 

The  stone  mauls  and  hammers  were  plentiful  in  the  southern 
portions  of  Dakota;  but  were  absent  from  a  large  part  of  the  Terri 
tory  near  the  forty-ninth  parallel.  Most  were  grooved  near  the 
middle,  and  they  varied  considerably  in  size  and  shape.  There  were 
also  some  grooved  stone  axes,  some  of  which  possess  a  prominent 
ridge  beside  the  furrow  and  upon  the  side  between  the  furrow  and 
the  edge  end  of  the  axe. 

Barbed  flint  and  agate  spears.  Some  are  very  large.  All  are  trans 
lucent  and  exhibit  workmanship  of  a  high  order.  They  are  found 
in  the  burial-mounds,  and  are  very  rare.  (See  Fig.  214  A.) 

Flint  and  agate  arrow-heads.  Only  a  very  few  of  these  occur. 
They  are  also  well-made. 

Effigy  stones.  Two  slender  stone  serpents  have  been  reported 
from  South  Dakota.  One  of  these  is  said  to  have  six  curves  or  con 
volutions. 

Stone  pipes.  (See  Fig.  428.)  These  are  made  of  catlinite  or 
red  pipestone,  and  are  regularly  formed  and  beautifully  polished. 
They  are  all  straight  tubes  constituting  bowls,  and  vary  in  length 
from  two  to  ten  inches.  One  taken  out  of  a  mound  by  the  writer 
was  ten  and  one  quarter  inches  long  (twenty-six  cm.).  The  stem 
was  at  least  in  some  cases  made  from  the  hollow  ulnar  bone  of  the 
wing  of  a  large  bird;  for  bone  stems  of  this  character  were  found 
with  several  of  the  pipes.  Hollow  pieces  of  wood  may  perhaps  also 
have  been  used  as  pipe-stems.  This  straight  tubular  pipe  is  very 
characteristic  of  the  mounds  of  North  Dakota,  Manitoba,  and  Sas 
katchewan,  very  few  of  other  kinds  having  as  yet  been  reported 
from  this  prairie  region. 

Stone  tablets.  Flat  pieces  of  stone  are  sometimes  found;  but  they 
are  very  rare.  One  of  these  found  by  Montgomery  in  1889  is  made 
from  pipestone  or  catlinite  and  has  the  figure  of  an  animal  carved 
upon  each  side.  (See  Fig.  310.)  One  of  the  carvings  is  probably 
meant  to  represent  a  beaver,  and  the  figure  upon  the  other  side  ot 


342      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

the  tablet  is  a  representation  of  a  buffalo  cow  with  open  mouth, 
and  the  figure  of  a  stone  spear-head  with  shaft  attached,  pointing  to 
the  heart.  It  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  buffalo  had  been  shot 
in  the  heart  by  the  spear  or  large  arrow,  and  in  consequence  the 
mouth  is  represented  as  being  wide  open.  Some,  however,  interpret 
the  position  of  the  spear  and  shaft  to  mean  the  'Mine  of  life,"  which 
may  possibly  be  the  correct  interpretation.  Another  tablet  found 
by  Montgomery  in  a  burial-mound  has  the  figure  of  a  beaver  carved 
upon  each  side,  one  representing  the  upper  surface  of  the  animal,  and 
the  other  being  a  side  view. 

Objects  of  Copper 

The  articles  made  of  copper  are  few  in  kind  and  number.  They  are 
chiefly  simple  cylindrical  tubular  beads  and  rudely  formed  spear 
heads  of  native  copper. 

Objects  of  Pottery 

The  writer  has  found  a  number  of  vessels  of  pottery  in  the  burial- 
mounds  of  northern  Dakota.  All  of  them  are  small  urn-shapecl 
vessels  of  coiled  ware,  and  almost  all  of  them  were  found  in  a 
perfect  condition.  In  most  cases  their  decoration  is  a  continuous 
spiral  groove  around  the  body  of  the  urn,  terminating  near  the 
centre  of  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  In  a  few  instances  the  decor 
ative  design  is  different;  and  some  are  provided  with  four  holes  in 
the  rim  for  suspension  by  cords. 

On  the  Mandan  village-sites  and  in  the  more  southern  parts  of 
Dakota  many  fragments  of  pottery  jars  and  vessels  are  found. 
These  have  various  incised  decorative  designs,  and  in  some  cases 
ears  or  small  handles  are  present.  Much  of  this  pottery  closely 
resembles  the  pottery  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  continent. 

Objects  of  Unbaked  Clay 

There  have  been  tobacco-pipes  of  unbaked  clay  found  by  the 
writer  in  the  burial-mounds  of  this  region.  One  form  of  these  con 
sists  simply  of  a  bowl  with  a  straight  tubular  passage.  (See  Fig. 
429.)  It  is  nearly  of  the  same  design  as  that  of  the  catlinite  pipe. 

A  second  kind  (see  Fig.  429)  has  stem  and  bowl  in  one  piece  and  is 
bent  or  curved  so  that  the  stem  is  at  right  angles  with  the  bowl  as  in 
modern  pipes.  These  pipes,  like  some  of  the  catlinite  pipes  taken 


DAKOTA  343 

from  the  ancient  mounds,  showed  evidence  of  much  usage,  there 
being  a  considerable  incrustation  or  deposit  within  the  bowl  from 
the  burning  of  kinni-kinnic  of  some  kind. 

While  some  of  the  artifacts  herein  enumerated  and  described  were 
undoubtedly  made  by  Sioux  and  Mandan  Indians,  it  appears  quite 
certain  that  the  products  of  the  mound  burial-pits,  that  is,  the 
spirally  grooved  urns,  the  tubular  pipes,  antler  tynes,  and  sea-shell 
ornaments,  belonged  to  some  other  ancient  tribe,  possibly  to  the 
ancient  Arikaras,  or  to  a  yet  earlier  tribe. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 

CONCLUSIONS 

NATURALLY,  the  Conclusions  to  "  The  Stone  Age  "  are  somewhat 
long,  and  while  I  have  embodied  them  all  under  two  chapters,  yet 
they  have  been  grouped  under  subdivisions,  as  will  be  observed 
by  readers. 

THE    POPULATION    IN    PREHISTORIC    TIMES 

We  should  first  consider  a  subject  which  has  been  given,  it  would 
seem,  scant  attention.  I  refer  to  the  fact  that  generally  throughout 
the  American  continent  are  unmistakable  evidences  of  a  considerable 
population  in  ancient  times.  At  present  there  are  about  three  hun 
dred  and  sixty  thousand  Indians  in  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
Perhaps  more  than  half  of  these  show  the  effects  of  marriage  with 
whites  or  negroes.  The  population  of  to-day  is  no  criterion  of  that  in 
ancient  times.  In  studying  field  evidence  of  population,  we  must 
bear  in  mind  that  the  Indian  of  both  periods  made  use  of  perishable 
materials.  This  is  an  essential  fact  to  be  noted  during  the  course  of 
our  studies.  Much  that  both  the  historic  and  prehistoric  Indian 
made  use  of  was  composed  of  cloth,  iron,  wood,  brass,  leather,  etc. 
It  is  quite  true  that  the  wood,  leather,  cloth,  etc.,  of  prehistoric 
times  would  disappear,  but  the  stone,  bone,  shell,  clay,  and  copper 
objects  remained.  Iron  rusts  quickly,  and  the  use  of  iron  was  wide 
spread  from  the  time  of  the  settlement  on  the  New  England  coast 
(1620)  down  to  the  present.  A  great  deal  of  iron  was  introduced  by 
De  Soto  in  Florida,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Arkansas; 
and  by  Coronado  in  the  Southwest.  Both  of  these  expeditions  were 
in  the  years  1540-1543,  and  on  them  hundreds  of  Spaniards  pene 
trated  into  the  interior  carrying  thousands  of  objects,  chiefly  of  iron. 
All  of  this  must  have  had  an  effect  on  the  natives  throughout  a  con 
siderable  portion  of  North  America. 

I  have  elsewhere  referred  to  the  difference  between  historic  and 
modern  sites,  but  the  subject  is  important  and  has  been,  it  seems  to 
me,  passed  over  or  not  appreciated  by  others,  and  it  is  necessary  to 
emphasize  the  difference  between  the  ancient  and  the  modern  again. 
The  significant  fact  is  that  all  of  this  iron  has  disappeared  leaving 


CONCLUSIONS  345 

here  and  there  a  streak  of  rust,  and  that  upon  the  modern  sites  were 
left  quantities  of  glass  beads  and  other  objects  that  are  not  perish 
able.  These  were  in  use  among  the  natives,  yet  few  of  these  things 
remain;  the  only  exception  being  noted  in  the  sites  of  the  Iroquois 
of  western  New  York,  where  the  modern  artifacts  predominate. 

In  previous  articles  I  have  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  on  the 
four  or  five  Shawano  sites  in  the  State  of  Ohio,  there  were  large 
bodies  of  Indians  assembled  during  the  period  embraced  between 
(roughly)  1700  and  1812.  These  Indians  helped  to  make  American 
history.  They  were  fairly  numerous,  of  unquestioned  ability,  and 
produced  such  men  as  Tecumseh  and  his  brother  the  Prophet.  Their 
leaders,  Tecumseh  and  Cornstalk,  were  engaged  in  twenty-two 
actions  with  our  troops;  numerous  traders  were  among  them,  and 
they  sent  many  expeditions  against  the  frontiers.  Yet,  if  one  walks 
over  these  populous  sites  of  historic  times,  one  finds  practically 
nothing  save  here  and  there  a  glass  bead  or  a  broken  tomahawk. 

In  any  one  of  perhaps  two  or  three  hundred  places  where  prehis 
toric  villages  occurred,  an  observer  may  find  great  quantities  of 
chips,  spawls,  broken  implements,  broken  pottery,  etc.  The  needs 
of  ancient  man  were  few,  his  implements  simple  and  confined  to  the 
types  illustrated  in  this  work.  Therefore,  the  presence  of  the  unnum 
bered  evidences  of  human  residence  indicates  either  a  great  length 
of  occupation,  or  large  numbers  of  Indians  for  a  short  period  of 
time. 

I  never  believed  that  the  population  in  America  exceeded  one 
million  (north  of  Mexico)  at  any  time,  assuming  that  the  field 
evidence  is  against  the  statement  so  often  made  that  there  are  as 
many  Indians  in  America  to-day  as  at  the  time  of  the  discovery. 

If  the  Ohio  Valley  had  been  occupied  by  mound-building  people 
when  La  Salle  and  Hennepin  made  their  voyages  of  discovery,  these 
worthy  and  zealous  explorers  would  have  made  reference  to  it  in  their 
reports.  But  La  Salle  and  Hennepin  heard  of  the  great  Illinois  towns 
on  the  river  of  the  same  name  in  that  state  and  journeyed  from 
Quebec  to  visit  those  towns.  There  were  thousands  of  Indians  living 
in  the  Illinois  country,  but  Ohio  appears  to  have  had  little  popula 
tion —  that  is  of  Indians,  and  none  whatsoever  of  mound-building 
people. 

Between  Aurora  and  Lawrenceburg,  Indiana,  if  the  Ohio  River  has 
not  during  a  recent  flood  covered  the  bottoms  with  silt,  there  may  be 
seen  a  village-site  nearly  three  miles  in  extent.  I  visited  it  in  1898 


346      THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 

and  collected  upwards  of  three  thousand  specimens  from  the  surface 
in  a  week's  time. 

The  Indian  population  was  most  numerous  on  that  great  artery, 
the  Mississippi  River  and  its  tributaries.  Perhaps  we  have  not  fully 
recognized  the  importance  played  by  this  "Father  of  Waters"  in 
prehistoric  times.  Throughout  the  Mississippi  Valley  are  several 
climates  varying  from  extreme  cold  in  northern  Minnesota  to  the 
semi-tropical  of  Louisiana;  from  the  aridity  of  the  foothills  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  to  the  salubrious  climate  of  Tennessee;  from  the 
cold  of  the  extreme  Northwest  to  that  of  Pennsylvania.  The  Missis 
sippi  Valley  comprises  altitude  and  sea  level,  mountains  and  plains, 
every  kind  of  soil  and  every  specimen  of  plant  and  animal  life  found 
in  North  America  above  the  City  of  Mexico. 

It  would  appear  that  man  had  penetrated  to  the  heads  of  every 
stream  tributary  to  the  Mississippi.  Through  the  Colorado  basin, 
throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  all  the  Southern  rivers;  to  the 
rivers  of  New  England,  the  great  St.  Lawrence  basin,  and  the  Red 
River  of  the  North,  and  even  far  Yukon  in  Alaska,  —  these  primi 
tive  stone-age  people  carried  their  simple  arts  and  established  their 
villages.  In  the  Cumberland  and  Tennessee  valleys  such  multitudes 
of  them  lived  that  even  after  a  hundred  years  of  ruthless  destruc 
tion  of  the  stone  grave  cemeteries,  there  still  remain  thousands  of 
unopened  sepulchres. 

Apropos  of  these  stone  graves,  General  Gates  P.  Thruston,  of 
Nashville,  who  has  studied  ancient  man  jn  Tennessee  more  than 
forty  years,  reports  by  letter  to  me  as  follows:  "  I  think  that  there 
must  have  been  forty  thousand  graves  within  twenty-five  miles  of 
Nashville.  I  should  think  there  were  probably  at  one  time  as  many 
as  one  hundred  thousand  prehistoric  inhabitants  in  the  two  valleys. 
The  village-sites  and  cemeteries  cannot  be  numbered." 

The  officials  at  Washington  have  underestimated,  it  seems  to  me, 
the  number  of  Indians  in  the  United  States,  because  they  have 
recorded  the  Indian  of  the  historic  period  rather  than  the  Indian 
of  the  past.  De  Soto  and  Coronado  both  reported  continuous  popu 
lation  throughout  the  regions  traversed  by  them.  Yet  shortly  after 
the  year  1700  small-pox,  measles,  cholera,  and  other  diseases  de 
stroyed  entire  tribes.  Untold  thousands  of  our  Indians  perished 
during  these  epidemics.  The  case  of  the  Mandans  is  well  known. 
The  early  colonists  made  frequent  reference  to  the  spread  of  these 
plagues  throughout  the  country. 


CONCLUSIONS 


347 


FIG.  722.  (S.  1-2.)  Views  of  an  unknown  object  of  stone, 
found  in  1885  on  a  ranch  on  the  Columbia  River,  Oregon.  \V.  F. 
Parker's  collection,  Omaha. 


348       THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 

Fourteen  years  ago  I  compiled  an  archaeologic  map  for  the  State 
of  Ohio;  the  last  entry  being  made  in  1897.  At  that  time  there  were 
3292  various  monuments  and  village-sites  recorded.  Since  then 
Professor  Mills  has  continued  the  work  and  added  to  the  total.  Con 
stant  travel  over  the  State  of  Ohio  in  the  past  years  leads  me  to 
believe  that  there  were  in  ancient  times  at  least  twenty  thousand 
monuments  great  and  small  in  that  state. 

All  considered,  the  population  in  North  America  in  pre-Colum 
bian  times  must  have  been  considerable  during  two  or  three  thou 
sand  years,  if  not  for  a  longer  period. 

THE    STONE   AGE    IN    HISTORIC    TIMES 

It  is  unfortunate  that  Coronado,  De  Soto,  Captain  Smith,  Henne- 
pin,  Marquette,  and  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  did  not  give  us  more  detail 
about  stone-age  times.  When  these  explorers,  or  adventurers,  or 
colonists  came  here,  many  of  the  Indians  were  still  in  the  stone  age. 
One  of  the  best  references  that  I  have  seen  is  that  by  Coronado's 
historian,  who  states  that  in  the  mountain  region  along  the  Colorado 
River  there  lived  many  wild  tribes  who  were  barbarous;  "eat  human 
flesh,  worship  painted  and  sculptured  stones,  and  are  much  given  to 
witchcraft  and  sorcery."  These  men  represented  savage  and  not 
barbaric  stone-age  times.  They  appear  to  have  been  exceedingly 
fleet  of  foot,  great  hunters,  very  courageous,  and  quite  different  from 
later  Indians.  The  historian,  speaking  of  one  of  these  tribes,  says: 

'The  third  language  is  that  of  the  Acaxes,  who  are  in  possession 
of  a  large  part  of  the  hilly  country  and  all  of  the  mountains.  They 
go  hunting  for  men  just  as  they  hunt  animals.  They  all  eat  human 
flesh,  and  he  who  has  the  most  human  bones  and  skulls  hung  up 
around  his  house  is  most  feared  and  respected.  They  live  in  settle 
ments  and  in  very  rough  country,  avoiding  the  plains.  In  passing 
from  one  settlement  to  another,  there  is  always  a  ravine  in  the  way 
which  they  cannot  cross,  although  they  can  talk  together  across  it. 
At  the  slightest  call  five  hundred  men  collect,  and  on  any  pretext  kill 
and  eat  one  another.  Thus  it  has  been  very  hard  to  subdue  these 
people,  on  account  of  the  roughness  of  the  country,  which  is  very 
great." 

It  has  been  known  for  many  years  that  the  Seri  Indians  living  on 
an  island  in  the  Gulf  of  California  are  still  in  the  stone  age.  Professor 
W  J  McGee,  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  visited  these  Indians  and 
wrote  a  long  report  concerning  them.1  This  book  should  be  read 

1  Seventeenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  1895-96  —  The  Seri  Indians. 


CONCLUSIONS  349 

by  students,  as  it  gives  an  insight  into  what  prehistoric  times  must 
have  been.  McGee  states  a  number  of  interesting  facts  which  I 
repeat,  with  some  changes,  in  condensed  form. 

The  Seris  are  bitterly  opposed  to  foreigners,  and  he  considers 
"their  race  sense  is  perhaps  the  strongest  ever  known."  This  is  due 
to  their  living  alone  and  apart  on  this  small  island  away  from  other 
tribes.  They  had  bitter  experiences  with  the  cruel  Spaniards  nearly 
three  centuries  ago,  which  was  a  contributing  factor  in  bringing 
about  this  condition.  They  use  shells,  with  which  the  sea-front 
abounds,  for  knives,  cups,  dishes,  dippers,  and  other  utensils. 

The  natural,  water-worn  pebbles  need  no  chipping  or  fashioning  to 
make  of  them  hammers  and  crushers.  Occasionally  some  of  these 
implements  exhibit  a  little  work  to  bring  them  into  better  shape. 
The  seacoast  abounded  in  thousands  of  wrater-worn  stone  ob 
jects,  of  such  forms  as  made  them  convenient  for  use  by  the  Seri 
Indians. 

Practically  no  chipped  implements  occurred.  McGee  searched 
patiently  but  found  only  two,  both  of  which  were  arrow-points. 
The  water-worn  stones  were  used  in  the  hand  and  not  hafted,  the 
aim  serving  as  the  handle.  "  The  Seri  are  wonderfully  quick  in  using 
these  stones"  -  the  motions  being  faster  than  if  one  held  the  end  of 
the  handle  in  which  the  stone  was  fashioned.  The  social  organization 
of  these  people  is  very  peculiar.  The  oldest  women  are  matrons  who 
seem  to  dominate  each  community.  In  the  case  of  the  best-looking 
young  woman  of  the  tribe,  wrho  would  not  be  photographed,  the 
matron  commanded  that  she  permit  a  picture  to  be  taken,  and  she, 
who  had  strenuously  objected,  at  once  consented.  When  any  of 
these  people  marry  with  aliens,  they  are  outlawed  or  driven  away 
from  the  other  Seri. 

The  graves  of  the  Seri  are  simple  pits  in  which  the  body  is  placed 
with  accompaniment  of  objects  belonging  to  the  deceased  in  life.  If 
such  burials  —  near  the  surface  —  w^ere  made  in  very  ancient  times 
in  more  moist  or  humid  climates,  it  is  certain  that  all  bone  and  other 
perishable  objects  would  have  disappeared  and  only  the  stone  things 
remained.  We  would  then  be  unable  to  determine  that  a  grave  once 
there  existed,  and  it  is  possible  --  I  do  not  say  probable  —  that  such 
graves  may  have  been  made  in  times  of  extreme  antiquity  in  the 
North  or  South,  and  that  all  of  the  softer  substances  and  bones  have 
disappeared.  In  that  event,  these  graves  of  an  early  culture  would 
not  appear  to  us  as  graves,  but  as  a  small  cache  of  rude  implements. 


350      THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH    AMERICA 

Aside  from  these  two  references  I  have  found  a  few  others,  but 
because  of  limited  space,  I  am  unable  to  present  them  here. 

Dr.  Charles  Peabody  kindly  furnished  me  with  an  interesting 
statement  regarding  the  use  of  the  bicaves  or  discoidals,  which  is 
herewith  submitted :  - 

''At  the  Village  of  the  Houmas.  There  are  eighty  cabins,  and  in 
the  middle  of  the  village  a  fine  level  square,  where  from  morning  to 
night  there  are  young  men  wrho  exercise  themselves  in  running  after 
a  flat  stone  which  they  throw  in  the  air  from  one  end  of  the  square  to 
the  other,  and  which  they  try  to  have  fall  on  two  cylinders  that  they 
roll  \vhere  they  think  that  the  stone  will  fall."1 

THE    ANTIQUITY    OF    MAN    IN    AMERICA 

We  should  consider  quite  briefly  this  subject.  As  was  remarked  on 
pages  32-4,  man  may  have  occupied  America  in  times  of  great 
antiquity.  Personally,  I  cannot  understand  how  all  the  different 
Indian  dialects  developed  in  comparatively  recent  times.  It  would 
seem  that  several  thousand  years  at  least  were  required  for  so  many 
and  diversified  tongues  to  have  developed  among  our  aborigines. 

Not  being  a  geologist,  it  would  be  presumptuous  for  me  to  pass 
opinion  on  questions  in  which  geology  played  prominent  part.  What 
little  is  offered,  therefore,  is  based  upon  study  of  man's  handiwork 
and  distribution  of  his  implements  rather  than  upon  geologic  evi 
dence.  There  has  been  not  a  little  said  concerning  the  observations 
of  Mr.  Ernest  Volk  and  Dr.  Charles  C.  Abbott  in  New  Jersey,  as  both 
of  these  men  have  labored  for  many  years  near  Trenton,  upon  fields 
and  in  the  sands  and  gravels.  Recently  Dr.  Abbott  published  three 
pamphlets.2  There  are  some  personalities  in  these  pamphlets  which 
might  have  been  omitted,  and  one  or  twro  statements  to  which 
some  persons  might  object.  But  on  the  whole  these  three  pamphlets 
sum  up  all  of  Dr.  Abbott's  observations  during  the  past  thirty  years, 
with  reference  to  New  Jersey  archaeology  and  the  antiquity  of 
man  in  the  Delaware  Valley. 

Waiving  these  minor  considerations,  which  no  broad-minded  man 
would  treasure  up  against  Dr.  Abbott,  we  may  safely  assume  that 
both  he  and  Mr.  Volk  are  real  archaeologists.  That  is,  they  under 
stand  conditions  as  they  existed  in  ancient  times,  and  that  is  some 
thing  that  few  men  of  to-day  grasp.  It  cannot  be  learned  from  read- 

"  Father  Gravicr's  Voyage  down  and  up  the  Mississippi,"  pp.  143,  144.    Dated  Feb. 
16,  1701.    From  Early  J'oyages  up  and  down  the  Mississippi.  Albany,  Joel  Nunsell,  1861. 
2  Archaologica  \rn-a  Ccrsarrn,  nos.  i,  2,  and  3.    C.  C.  Abbott,  M.  D.    Trenton,   X.  J. 


CONCLUSIONS 

ing  the  reports,  from  studying  in  museums,  or  through  obtaining  a 
degree  from  one  of  our  universities.  Both  Volk  and  Abbott  have 
worked  hard.  There  was  no  fuss  made  about  it.  It  was  a  continuous 
grind  day  after  day,  week  in  and  week  out,  year  upon  year. 

No  man  can  dig  a  pit  in  the  ground  and  fill  it  up  so  that  it  con 
forms  to  the  surrounding  natural  strata.  Such  a  place  always  shows 


FIG.  723.  (S.  about  1-3.)  A  remarkably  well-preserved  gourd  water- 
jug.  Found  in  the  ashes  of  Salts  Cave,  Kentucky.  B.  H.  Young's 
collection,  Louisville,  Kentucky. 

disturbed  soil  or  clay.  Walk  along  the  riverbank,  where  the  water 
has  washed  out  a  line  of  fence  and  left  the  marks  of  the  post-holes, 
and  observe;  note  gravel-banks  anywhere  in  this  country  where 
aborigines  buried  in  graves,  and  as  white  men  haul  away  the  gravel 
and  expose  the  bank,  one  is  able  to  see  clearly  defined  the  outlines  of 
the  graves.  The  same  is  true  of  the  holes  of  burrowing  animals  and 
of  tree-roots,  etc.  The  beds  of  streams  mentioned  by  Or.  Abbott 
in  his  work  play  an  important  part  in  archaeology.  \Yhen  the  im 
plements  found  in  them  were  lost,  the  streams  were  active.  Since 


352      THE   STONE   AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

then  they  have  filled  up.  The  character  of  one  deposit  in  the  Dela 
ware  Valley  investigated  by  Abbott  and  Volk  differs  from  that  of 
another,  and  the  differences  are  so  striking,  the  deposits  being 
in  the  one  place  sand,  and  in  another  place  glacial  clay,  in  another 
place  river  gravel,  that  one  cannot  but  believe  that  a  considerable 
period  of  time  elapsed  between  these  various  cultures. 

In  many  sections  of  the  country  are  found  not  only  chipped 
implements,  but  other  implements  heavily  coated  with  patina,  which 
is  an  incrustation  accruing  by  time  alone.  There  are  other  worn 
specimens  which  appear  very  old.  Select  some  of  these  and  compare 
them  with  objects  from  the  Mandan  or  Iroquois  sites,  or  even  from 
the  mounds  in  the  Ohio  Valley,  and  one  will  observe  the  apparent 
difference  in  the  age  of  these  specimens.  The  Mandan  pottery  and 
some  of  the  Iroquois  pottery  are  even  at  this  late  date  coated  with 
soot.  There  is  no  soot  on  the  mound  pottery.  Along  the  Atlantic 
Coast,  and  in  the  South,  flint  implements  are  sometimes  coated  with 
patina.  In  Florida  shell  heaps  are  occasionally  found  skeletons  at 
great  depth.  Mr.  Clarence  B.  Moore  considered  the  lower  strata  of 
the  larger  shell  heaps  to  be  very  old. 

There  was  a  skull  found  by  Dr.  Wyman  during  the  course  of  his 
exploration  many  years  ago  in  the  base  of  a  shell  mound  in  Florida. 1 
I  present  a  picture  of  it  in  Fig.  717.  The  cranium  is  heavily  in- 
crusted  by  cemented  shells.  Such  a  burial  must  be  of  great  age. 

These  shell  heaps  accumulate  very  slowly  during  the  occupancy 
of  the  sites  by  many  generations  of  Indians.  This  skull,  and  the 
skull  found  at  Lansing,  Kansas,  at  a  depth  of  twenty-five  or  thirty 
feet,  and  other  finds,  are  evidences  of  considerable  antiquity.  Dr. 
Hrdlicka  has  said  that  the  Lansing  man  was  of  the  same  type  as  the 
modern  Indian.  This  does  not  mean  that  it  is  modern,  for  Assyrian 
and  Egyptian  crania  five  or  more  thousand  years  old  have  been  taken 
from  the  tombs,  and  it  would  require  experts  to  distinguish  them 
from  crania  of  living  people. 

Prof.  Edward  H.  Williams,  Jr.,  of  Woodstock,  Vt.,  suggested  to  me 
that  an  expert  analysis  be  made  of  the  surface  of  certain  problematic 
forms  and  ornaments  finished  and  unfinished.  Therefore,  I  gave  to 
Prof.  Williams  some  forty  objects  from  our  Andover  collection,  and 
he  made  a  careful  examination,  as  did  his  friend  Prof.  John  D. 
Irving  of  Lehigh  University,  who  is  secretary  of  the  Geological 

'  Jeffries  Wyman,  Fresh-Water  Shell  Mounds  of  the  St.  John's  River,  Florida,  pp.  33,  64. 
Peabody  Academy  of  Science,  Fourth  Memoir.  Salem,  Massachusetts,  1875. 


CONCLUSIONS  353 

Society  of  America,  and  an  expert  in  such  matters.  Some  of  these 
specimens  are  found  to  be  old,  a  few  very  old,  and  others  more  or 
less  recent.  I  shall  quote  a  few  of  his  observations.  The  numbers 
refer  to  catalogue  numbers  in  our  books :  - 

"  225 1 7  --  From  Georgia.  This  is  a  fine-grained  diabase.  Prof. 
Irving  reports  that  the  ophitic  structure  is  very  well  marked.  This 
object  has  been  buried  for  some  time,  and  the  surface  is  weathered, 
and  has  been  pitted  since  it  was  worked. 

"23449  —  Syenitic  Gneiss.  The  feldspar  had  begun  to  kaolinize 
before  the  pebble  was  worked.  Since  working  the  surface  has  been 
considerably  etched,  and  the  hornblende  is  left  rising  above  the 
surface.  This  black  mineral  has  also  been  decomposed  since  work 
ing,  and  the  iron  component  has  rusted  and  stained  the  horn. 

"34772  —  Extremely  fine-grained  muscovite  schist  with  grains  of 
magnetite.  This  was  weathered  before  working,  and  the  magnetite 
has  almost  wholly  rotted  to  soft  dark  spots.  There  was  some  etching 
of  the  surface  since  working. 

"4137 -- Foliated  greenish  talc.  The  lighter  pits  and  scratches 
are  recent.  The  surface  is  darker  than  the  fresh  fracture,  and  shows 
age  and  handling. 

"18414 — This  is  a  much  decomposed  rock  of  the  trap  variety, 
which  has  become  so  weathered  and  softened  that  it  has  become 
almost  entirely  chlorite.  It  looks  very  much  like  an  argillite.  It 
belongs  to  one  of  the  'greenstone'  rocks." 

As  to  the  exact  number  of  years  required  for  this  weathering,  it  is 
impossible  to  state,  but  since  these  specimens  were  considered  from 
a  geological  and  mineralogical  point  of  view,  and  critically  analyzed 
by  two  entirely  competent  men,  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  a  few  hun 
dred  years  would  not  account  for  the  disintegration.  I  do  not  know 
whether  these  things  are  a  few  hundred  or  several  thousand  years 
old,  but  the  analysis  shows  that  the  stone  weathered  to  some  con 
siderable  extent,  and  this  would  be  indication  of  age.  It  would  be 
interesting  to  analyze  some  of  the  Iroquois  objects  and  to  compare. 

The  different  cultures  in  America  would  appear  to  be  evidence  of 
the  antiquity  of  man.  One  cannot  imagine  that  the  Cliff-Dwellers 
and  mound-building  tribes,  that  the  stone-grave  people,  or  the  cave 
people  in  the  Ozarks,  or  the  shell-heap  people  of  Florida,  or  the 
Plains  tribes,  and  finally,  the  woods  and  mountain  Indians,  who 
never  made  any  monuments  of  any  description  —  that  all  these 
cultures  developed  in  a  few  hundred  years.  They  are  so  totally  dif- 


354      THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH    AMERICA 

ferent,  and  are  so  influenced  and  modified  by  climate  and  local  con 
ditions,  that  it  would  appear  plausible  that  several  thousand  years 
must  have  elapsed  before  these  sharp  lines  of  distinction  developed. 
Again,  while  all  Indians  have  skins  more  or  less  red,  the  variation  in 
physical  appearance  among  our  aborigines  is  surprising.  No  one 
could  fail  to  distinguish  an  Ojibwa  from  an  Iroquois,  or  a  Sioux  from 
an  Apache,  or  an  Osage  from  a  Seminole,  even  if  one  had  no  know 
ledge  of  Indian  language  or  customs.  Environment  and  habitat 
must  have  influenced  these  tribes  and  affected  their  stature  and 
physical  conditions. 

ADAPTATION    TO    CONDITIONS 

Among  our  American  aborigines  one  trait  stands  out  prominently, 
and  that  is  the  art  of  adapting  themselves  to  existing  and  local  con 
ditions  and  environments.  Perhaps  no  race  so  readily  appreciated 
that  it  must  depend  entirely  upon  its  own  resources.  We  find,  there 
fore,  that  it  is  immaterial  whether  the  native  Americans  live  in 
Maine  or  in  Florida,  in  North  Dakota,  or  Texas;  they  selected  the 
most  available  materials.  If  the  stone  was  easily  chipped  or  of  such 
consistency  that  it  could  be  made  use  of,  they  adopted  that  stone 
for  certain  implements.  If  the  stone  was  refractory  and  not  easily 
chipped  or  worked,  they  did  the  best  that  they  could  with  it.  There 
fore  it  is  not  Always  a  criterion  of  poor  workmanship  nor  does  it  indi 
cate  low  degree  of  culture  if  the  implements  are  crude  and  roughly 
and  imperfectly  made.  It  even  means  that  there  is  no  good  material 
at  hand  and  that  the  Indians  selected  the  best  they  were  able  to 
secure  and  worked  it  out  as  well  as  they  were  able.  Again,  in  certain 
sections  implements  made  of  good  material  are  to  be  found,  also 
of  poor,' coarse,  local  materials.  Frequently  the  good  material  was 
transported  from  a  distance.  It  may  have  come  through  trade  or  by 
means  of  conquest.  That  is  immaterial.  The  point  is  that  the  nat 
ives  naturally  preferred  materials  more  easily  worked,  but  that  they 
were  not  always  able  to  obtain  them.  It  is  quite  likely  that  few  of 
the  tribes  were  friendly  in  prehistoric  times.  The  natives  of  a  given 
river  valley  may  have  desired  the  better  material  to  be  found  two 
or  three  hundred  miles  distant  from  their  habitat,  but  because  of  the 
hostility  of  the  nation  living  in  that  section  where  better  material 
could  be  obtained,  they  were  unable  by  either  trade  or  conquest  to 
obtain  it,  and  had  to  be  content  with  such  unsatisfactory  chert  or 
other  stone  as  occurred  in  their  immediate  locality.  I  think  that  this 
factor  entered  largely  into  prehistoric  life. 


CONCLUSIONS  355 

But  if  no  suitable  stone  could  be  obtained,  the  Indians  made  use 
of  bone  or  other  substances.  In  several  references  to  the  Mandan 
village-sites  in  this  work,  the  point  was  made  that  the  Mandans  used 
the  large  bones  of  the  buffalo  for  a  multitude  of  purposes.  This  was 
because  suitable  stone  was  scarce,  and  for  the  further  reason  that  the 
bones  were  more  easily  worked  and  shaped  than  stone.  In  certain 
sections  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  wrhere  materials  of  all  kinds  \vere 
in  abundance  many  varieties  of  stone,  shell,  etc.,  were  employed. 

The  readiness  with  wrhich  the  native  adapted  himself  to  condi 
tions  is  shown  in  the  house  structure  of  the  Indians.  Those  of  cold 
climates  lived  in  very  different  structures  from  those  of  the  South. 
And  the  Plains  Indians  employed  skin  coverings,  whereas  the  woods 
Indians  made  use  of  bark  or  of  logs,  and  the  Pacific  Coast  Indians 
used  quantities  of  hewn  boards. 

This  is  an  interesting  subject,  and  could  be  followed  at  consider 
able  length  did  space  permit. 

ART    IN    ANCIENT   TIMES    AND    MODERN    ART 

Too  much  has  been  made  of  the  presence  of  stone  and  bone  tools 
among  modern  tribes.  While  there  have  been  numerous  instances  of 
such  clinging  to  old  forms,  yet  students  of  modern  Indian  life,  by 
their  constant  reference  to  these  recurrences,  have  given  a  wrong 
impression  to  the  w^orld. 

It  is  generally  known  and  accepted  that  art  passes  through 
periods  of  transition.  As  an  example  one  might  cite  the  Renaissance. 
No  student  of  art  would  confuse  the  Renaissance  with  an  earlier  or 
later  period.  Examples  of  earlier  art  still  persisting  during  the  early 
Renaissance  are  in  evidence.  But  as  the  influence  of  the  Renais 
sance  broadened,  all  art  of  that  period  was  affected,  or  leavened  by 
it,  and  presently  practically  all  art  was  Renaissance. 

This  is  precisely  true  of  Indian  art.  We  search  diligently  to  find  an 
old,  really  old  Navajo  blanket  to-day,  and  we  pay  a  fabulous  price 
for  it.  Likewise  we  search  —  but  in  vain  —  for  old  wooden  bowls, 
painted  buffalo  robes,  and  feather  mantles.  The  utmost  corners  of 
remote  South  America  are  visited  by  explorers  from  Harvard,  the 
American  Museum,  and  Berlin  and  London  museums.  Why?  To 
discover  primitive  man  untouched  by  civilization  in  order  to  record 
his  arts  and  folk-lore,  religion,  and  daily  life,  undefiled  by  contact 
with  our  civilization.  Is  it  found?  Scarcely  an  example  remains  - 
all  is  tinged  and  influenced  even  as  the  Renaissance  changed  the  pre- 


356      THE   STONE  AGE   IN   NORTH   AMERICA 

Renaissance.  If  one  will  reflect  a  moment,  one  will  agree  that  this  is 
all  true. 

Examples  of  sculptures  in  stone,  carving  of  shell,  effigies  in  cop 
per,  ceramic  art  in  the  Cliff- Dweller  country  are  in  our  leading 
museums.  I  would  recommend  readers  to  go  to  these  museums  and 
compare  that  real  art  with  the  wretched  examples  in  vogue  among 
the  Indians  at  the  present  time. 

I  have  said  so  much  regarding  ancient  arts  in  various  places  in 
this  book  that  now  I  wish  to  speak  more  particularly  regarding  cer 
tain  tribes  of  Indians,  among  whom  I  spent  the  spring  and  summer 
of  the  year  1909,  and  contrast  their  art  with  stone-age  art. 

In  March,  1909,  I  was  sent  by  the  Department  of  the  Interior  to 
investigate  the  condition  of  the  Ojibwa  Indians.  I  returned  sev 
eral  weeks  later  and  was  again  sent  out  the  first  of  July  and 
remained  on  the  White  Earth  Reservation  until  in  October.  Be 
cause  our  work  was  to  establish  who  wrere  the  full  bloods,  we  came  in 
contact  with  all  the  Indians  of  the  Ojibwa  tribe  who  claim  to  have 
no  white  or  negro  blood  in  their  veins. 

Among  our  eighteen  or  twenty  witnesses,  who  were  chiefs  and 
persons  ranging  from  seventy  to  eighty-five  years  of  age,  and  who 
were  familiar  with  the  history  of  the  Ojibwa,  with  the  parents  and 
grandparents  of  those  whom  we  established  to  be  full  bloods,  were 
several  members  of  the  grand  medicine  society,  the  Midiwewin. 
These  persons  were  frequently  examined  by  me  through  our  inter 
preters  —  all  of  whom  were  the  most  competent  we  were  able  to 
procure  and  the  best  on  the  reservation  —  as  to  the  past  history  of 
the  Ojibwa  tribe.  The  old  record -keeper,  commonly  called  Day- 
dodge,  but  whose  real  name  is  Bay-bah-dwung-gay-aush,  aged 
eighty-two,  had  a  remarkable  memory.  To  him  had  been  related  all 
the  Hiawatha  traditions  by  the  Indians,  and  he  was  able  to  carry 
back  history  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  years.  This  man  told 
me  that  there  were  few,  if  any,  stone  implements  in  use  among  his 
people  when  he  was  a  boy,  and  he  did  not  think  that  stone  objects 
were  in  use  to  any  extent  when  his  grandparents  were  children.  He 
said  that  occasionally  a  woman  hafted  a  stone  celt  and  used  it  in 
scraping  or  cutting,  that  some  stone  mallets  were  to  be  found  when 
his  grandparents  were  young,  but  he  thought  that  the  French  and 
English  traders'  goods  had  displaced  all  stone  articles  in  use  among 
the  Ojibwa. 


CHAPTER    XXXVII 

CONCLUSIONS 

THE    ANCIENT    CULTURE-GROUPS 

As  Major  Powell  found  many  linguistic  stocks  in  North  America 
in  recent  times,  so  we  find  quite  as  many  cultures  in  ancient  times. 
But  the  language  of  these  people  being  unknown  to  us,  we  must 
study  them  through  their  implements.  Some  of  these  are  wide 
spread,  while  others  are  local.  Consider,  for  instance,  the  saddle- 
shaped  or  bird-shaped  stones,  of  which  numbers  are  illustrated  in 
chapter  xxv.  These,  after  great  study,  one  must  conclude  orig 
inated  in  a  certain  tribe  long  ago.  It  is  not  proper  to  call  them  Iro- 
quois,  or  Delaware;  if  they  existed  in  historic  times  one  might  be 
more  correct  in  stating  that  the  Eries,  or  the  Snake  People,  referred 
to  by  the  Delawares  in  their  Lenni-Lenape  tradition,  made  and  used 
them.  Certainly  they  are  not  Iroquoian  in  character.  Their  very 
distribution  would  indicate  that  they  are  a  product  of  Northern 
people  of  stone-age  culture.  As  against  this  the  bicave  and  discoidal 
stone  is  of  central  South  culture  and  not  of  New  England,  the  North, 
or  West.  Under  other  chapters  I  have  presented  some  conclusions, 
and  these  will  not  be  repeated  here.  Axes,  flint  implements,  copper 
(by  Mr.  Brown),  and  several  other  divisions  of  artifacts  have  been 
already  separated  into  their  culture-groups.  At  the  present  writing 
there  are  so  many  new  types  on  exhibition  in  public  and  private 
collections  which  formerly  were  considered  products  of  individual 
fancy,  that  it  is  quite  difficult  for  one  to  determine  the  number  and 
extent  of  the  prehistoric  cultures  in  the  United  States. 

However,  one  must  make  a  beginning.  In  presenting  w^hat  ap 
pears  to  me  to  establish  various  local  cultures,  I  am  quite  aware  that 
future  observers  —  when  the  knowledge  of  this  intricate  subject  is 
more  widespread  —  may  add  or  detract  from  my  observations.  The 
cultures  mentioned,  therefore,  must  be  considered  in  the  nature  of 
pioneer  observations,  subject  to  development  or  change  as  arcruro- 
logic  knowledge  expands  and  becomes  more  perfect. 

In  New  Brunswick  and  Maine  and  about  the  mouth  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  there  are  the  ever-present  flint  implements  and  chipped 


358       THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH    AMERICA 

objects,  and  also  numbers  of  slate  points,  which  may  be  either  pro 
blematical  forms  or  winged  spear-points  and  arrow-heads.  Many  of 
the  slate  points  found  by  Mr.  C.  C.  Willoughby  in  graves  at  Old- 
town,  Maine,  appear  to  me  to  be  too  long  and  slender  to  have  made 
effective  weapons.  Yet  they  may  have  served  as  such.  The  adze 
and  gouge  and  the  adze-blade  celt  are  numerous  in  New  England. 
I  have  commented  on  the  types  of  chipped  objects  and  how  they 
differ  in  various  sections  of  the  country,  so  that  it  is  not  necessary  to 
re-enter  upon  a  lengthy  dissertation  on  this  question. 

In  New  England  proper,  the  region  east  of  the  Hudson  River,  the 
slate  points  are  not  common,  and  gradually  disappear  west  of  the 
Connecticut  Valley.  But  the  adze  and  the  gouge  and  the  long  roller 
pestle  abound  in  numbers.  There  are  also  strange  effigies  of  whale, 
and  rude  effigies  so  rough  that  one  does  not  know  what  the  maker  in 
tended  to  represent.  Plummet-shaped  stones  are  also  common.  But 
the  slate  gorget  and  ornament,  and  the  bell-shaped  pestle,  the  dis- 
coidal  and  bicave,  and  many  other  forms,  are  almost  wanting.  The 
pipes  are  not  common  and  far  inferior  to  those  of  the  Ohio  Valley 
and  Middle  South  and  the  South.  New  England,  then,  may  be  divided 
into  two  culture-groups,  that  east  of  the  Merrimack  River  and  that 
lying  between  the  Merrimack  and  the  Hudson.  These  are  related 
to  each  other,  but  differences  may  be  observed. 

The  next  culture-group  is  that  of  eastern  Canada,  north  of  Lake 
Erie  and  Lake  Ontario.  All  of  this  region  is  marked  by  Iroquois 
influence,  and  the  tribes  preceding  the  Iroquois  left  exceedingly 
crude  and  rude  handiwork  in  stone.  The  forms  which  may  be  con 
sidered  to  be  pre-Iroquoian  are  very  like  those  of  the  Lake  Cham- 
plain  district.  A  splendid  collection  of  them  is  on  exhibition  in  the 
Provincial  Museum,  Toronto,  where  Mr.  David  Boyle  labored  for 
many  years  to  bring  about  the  preservation  of  Canadian  antiquities. 

Between  the  Hudson  and  the  line  drawn  between  Buffalo,  New 
York,  and  Baltimore,  there  are  at  least  two  cultures  and  indications 
of  one  or  two  more.  In  northern  New  York  is  the  famous  Iroquoian 
culture  of  which  so  much  has  been  written  —  and  by  more  compe 
tent  observers  —  that  I  would  not  dare  describe  it  here. 

Suffice  it  to  say  that  an  inspection  of  the  pipes,  pottery,  bone 
implements,  etc.,  from  Iroquoian  graves  and  village -sites  will 
acquaint  one  even  superficially  interested  in  archaeology  with  the 
fact  that  the  Iroquoian  culture  is  plainly  different  from  anything 
else  on  the  American  continent.  Whether  the  Iroquois,  previous  to 


CONCLUSIONS  359 

their  famous  Hiawatha,  were  organized  and  had  developed  this 
peculiar  art  is  a  question  for  others  to  decide.  But  the  freshness  of 
the  Iroquoian  pipes  and  pottery  and  the  general  tone  of  the  objects 
-  and  by  tone  I  mean  that  appearance  which  most  of  them  pos 
sess  —  indicate  that  they  show  European  influence  —  lead  the 
archaeologist  to  conclude  that  as  to  antiquity  they  are  not  in  the 
class  with  the  other  objects  found  in  America.  It  has  always  been 
my  opinion  that  five  or  six  centuries  of  time  are  sufficient  to  account 
for  their  production.  None  of  them  look  old  in  the  sense  that  objects 
from  other  sites  appear  old. 

In  southern  New  York  and  throughout  New  Jersey  and  Delaware 
we  have  chipped  and  polished  implements  which  are  supposed  to 
stand  for  the  prehistoric  Delawares,  and  these  types  appear,  in  the 
main,  very  old.  They  are  more  than  weather-beaten,  many  of  them 
were  on  the  verge  of  disintegration.  Time  alone  can  account  for  such 
condition.  The  Delaware  Valley  and  the  Susquehanna  must  have 
been  ideal  places  for  prehistoric  man.  In  both  the  climate  was  not 
severe;  game,  nuts,  herbs,  fish,  and  other  necessities  of  life  abounded. 
A  careful  inspection  of  the  work  done  by  Dr,  Charles  C.  Abbott  and 
Mr.  Ernest  Volk  leads  me  to  believe  that  these  men  have,  beyond 
question,  established  that  man  lived  in  the  Delaware  Valley  three  or 
four  thousands  of  years  ago.  Rude  axes  and  peculiar  ornaments- also 
abound.  The  gouge  is  rare.  The  adze  is  scarcely  ever  found,  while 
the  problematical  forms  are  totally  different  from  those  of  the  Mid 
dle  West  and  the  Middle  South.  The  roller  pestle  occurs,  but  it  may 
not  be  considered  a  local  type.  Copper  is  found  in  limited  quanti 
ties,  hematite  is  almost  entirely  wanting,  and  effigy  pipes  are  very 
rare.  The  bicaves,  now  and  then  discovered,  may  be  considered  as 
strays  brought  in  by  means  of  barter  or  exchange.  The  projectile 
points  are  as  a  rule  slender,  and  are  easily  distinguished  from  those 
of  New  England,  New  York  State,  or  Canada.  Jasper,  argillite, 
quartzite,  and  rhyolite  predominate. 

The  next  culture-group  is  that  of  central  and  western  Pennsyl 
vania,  wherein  many  New  Jersey  and  New  York  State  types  occur. 
The  problematical  forms,  the  black  chert,  arrow-points,  the  jasper 
knives,  and  the  notched  hoes  or  axes  may  be  said  to  enable  one  to 
distinguish  this  region  from  other  culture-groups  of  the  East,  even 
if  they  are  more  or  less  related.  West  Virginia  may  be  said  to  lie 
on  the  border-line  between  Pennsylvania,  Kentucky,  and  Ohio. 
Hematite  appears  in  the  valleys  of  the  Kanawha  and  other  streams 


36o      THE   STONE   AGE   IN    NORTH   AMERICA 

in  West  Virginia.  The  monitor  pipes  also  appear,  together  with  cer 
tain  forms  of  axes,  spear-heads,  and  knives  which  are  found  in  greater 
numbers  in  Kentucky  and  Ohio. 

Ohio  and  Kentucky  stand  as  two  separate  cultures  separated  by 
the  Ohio  River.  Yet  the  Ohio  River  was  made  use  of  by  prehistoric 
man  from  above  Pittsburg  to  its  mouth  at  Cairo.  Along  the  stream 
itself  one  may  discern,  on  both  north  and  south  bank  sites,  all  kinds 
of  cultures,  thus  proving  that  the  Ohio  River  was  not  only  a  thor 
oughfare  but  the  thoroughfare  in  prehistoric  times.  It  is  only  when 
one  proceeds  up  the  streams  from  the  Ohio  back  fifty  or  a  hundred 
miles  in  Illinois,  Kentucky,  Indiana,  and  Ohio  that  one  observes 
how  the  local  cultures  have  developed.  The  culture  of  the  Mus- 
kingum  and  Scioto  in  Ohio  are  practically  the  same ;  the  Miami  is  dif 
ferent.  The  Wabash  in  Indiana  is  yet  another  culture  and  the  Illi 
nois  yet  a  third.  In  Kentucky  the  Cumberland  and  Tennessee  are  in 
a  class  by  themselves,  separate  from  the  others  mentioned.  These 
two  latter  rivers  are  so  long,  and  as  each  is  navigable  far  into  the 
State  of  Tennessee,  I  feel  certain  that  five  or  six  cultures  may  be 
clearly  differentiated  within  their  valleys.  I  have  referred  to  the 
stone-grave  culture  of  this  region  elsewhere.  It  merits  further 
detailed  study  on  the  part  of  archaeologists. 

In  the  State  of  Illinois  are  long  yellow  chert  spear-heads  and  lance- 
heads  and  knives,  some  of  which  have  slightly  turned  points.  Many 
of  these  are  not  unlike  the  Scandinavian  daggers.  In  Michigan  and 
Wisconsin  there  is  a  wealth  of  copper,  many  of  the  sugar  quartz 
spears  and  knives,  large  numbers  of  peculiar  winged  problematical 
forms  which  have  been  quite  fully  illustrated  in  this  work.  The 
Illinois  and  Wisconsin  cultures  are  separate  and  distinct. 

Northern  Illinois  contains  types  of  Wisconsin  and  Michigan  as 
well  as  numbers  of  central  Illinois  forms.  At  Sandwich  in  DeKalb 
County  there  is  a  large  collection  owned  by  Mr.  Henry  W.  Franck, 
who  sent  me  numerous  photographs  of  his  exhibit.  This  collection 
illustrates  the  mingling  of  types  of  three  cultures  and  is  of  great 
archaeological  importance. 

Passing  west  to  the  Mississippi  in  Missouri  wre  have  the  so-called 
hematite  belt.  Along  the  Missouri  River  occur  great  quantities  of 
iron  ore,  and  the  natives  worked  this  into  hematite  axes,  celts,  plum 
mets,  etc.  This  region  of  central  Missouri  appears  to  be  different 
from  southwestern  Missouri.  Central  and  western  Missouri  (outside 
of  the  Ozarks)  are  also  different  from  the  cultures  bordering  along 
the  Mississippi  River,  or  eastern  Missouri. 


CONCLUSIONS  361 

In  Kansas  and  Iowa  we  have  the  large  notched  hatchets  which 
are  peculiar  to  that  section  of  the  country,  the  white  flint  of  Iowa, 
the  dark  chert  of  Kansas,  and  the  minute  arrow-heads,  the  small 
almost  square  hand-axes,  the  profusion  of  yellow  chert  and  poor 
jasper  hide-scrapers.  These  are  always  typical  of  the  buffalo  coun 
try.  But  the  strangest  culture,  it  seems  to  me,  in  America  is  that 
of  the  cave  region  of  the  Ozark  Mountains,  where  Dr.  Peabody  and 
myself  made  several  investigations.  In  southwestern  Missouri, 
northwestern  Arkansas,  and  Indian  Territory,  in  both  limestone  and 
sandstone  formation,  are  some  thirty-five  or  more  natural  caverns 
which  had  been  inhabited  by  man.  In  these  are  great  quantities  of 
ashes  and  debris.  Our  inspection  of  four  or  five  of  these  caves,  the 
study  of  local  collections,  and  an  examination  of  village-sites  in  the 
region  revealed  the  fact  that  chipped  implements  of  the  village-sites 
are  of  different  stone  from  those  from  the  ashes  in  the  caverns. 
That  man  in  the  Ozark  region  had  no  pipes,  no  slate  articles,  no 
problematical  forms,  no  roller  or  bell-shaped  pestles,  no  shell  orna 
ments,  no  copper,  no  hematite,  no  celts,  no  grooved  axes,  etc.  I  say 
none,  although  in  the  entire  region  one  slate  article,  one  pipe,  and  two 
axes  have  been  found.  These  may  be  considered  as  brought  in  by 
later  Indians.  The  chipped  implements  are  rough  —  save  here  and 
there  a  long,  slender,  well-chipped  object;  they  are  seldom  well 
made.  There  is  a  profusion  of  sandstone  mano-stones  and  mortars. 
There  is  every  indication  that  the  culture  is  extremely  old  and  very 
primitive,  as  stalagmites  have  formed  (notably  in  Jacob's  Cavern) 
over  some  of  the  human  remains.  This  Ozark  culture,  as  stated 
above,  was  carefully  worked  out  by  Peabody  and  myself,  and  was 
found  to  be  an  anomaly  in  American  archaeology.  I  am  persuaded 
that  there  are  other  arid  equally  peculiar  local  cultures  to  be  found  if 
one  searches  diligently. 

The  Southern  culture  shows  local  developments.  It  is  chiefly  dis 
tinguished  by  its  pottery,  which  is  different  in  Florida  from  that  of 
Missouri  and  from  Louisiana.  The  flint  implements  also  differ,  as  do 
many  of  the  types  in  stone.  In  Florida  stone  celts  occur,  but  axes  are 
extremely  rare. 

In  Texas  there  is  peculiar  culture,  chiefly  of  chipped  implements 
of  a  rough  sort  and  small  minute  arrow-points  well  made,  with  little 
or  no  pottery,  with  almost  an  entire  absence  of  problematical  forms, 
and  of  copper,  little  hematite,  etc. 

Throughout   the  entire   Rocky   Mountain   chain,  from   northern 


362       THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH    AMERICA 

British  Columbia  to  the  Colorado's  headwaters,  is  a  peculiar  "  moun 
tain  culture."  From  this  is  excepted  the  Columbia  Valley  proper, 
where  large  pestles  occur,  also  polished  pacldle-shaped  stones,  minute 
chipped  objects,  and  various  problematical  forms.  The  mountain 
chain  proper  (back  from  the  Coast)  is  different  as  to  culture,  and 
large  chipped  discs  abound,  also  short,  round  pestles,  rubbing-stones, 
hand-hammers,  large  grooved  hammers.  Eastern  types  are  entirely- 
wanting,  and  many  of  the  chipped  objects  may  be  distinguished  from 
those  of  the  Coast  or  the  Columbia  Valley. 

Stone  objects  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  not  very  numerous. 
This  is  explained  on  the  ground  that  before  the  coming  of  the  whites 
it  was  not  necessary  for  the  Indians  to  live  in  the  mountains  to  any 
appreciable  extent.  Naturally,  they  preferred  the  valleys  in  the 
foothills  where  there  was  more  game.  The  tribes  were  driven  to  the 
mountains  by  their  enemies.  The  oldest  Sioux  have  told  me  (at 
Pine  Ridge)  that  they  never  liked  to  go  into  the  main  range  of  the 
Black  Hills  because  evil  spirits  dwelt  there. 

The  cultures  in  the  Colorado  basin  might  be  divided  into  several 
groups  —  the  Cliff-Dwellers,  the  Pueblo  culture,  the  Cave-Dwellers, 
and  the  boulder  ruin  people.  These  might  be  classified  by  Dr. 
Fewkes  as  all  belonging  to  the  same  class.  I  do  not  know  with  refer 
ence  to  that,  but  the  implements,  the  surface  indications,  and  the 
character  of  the  burials  lead  me  to  suppose  that  the  cave  people 
of  southern  Utah  and  the  boulder  ruin  people  of  San  Juan  Valley  were 
to  be  considered  as  distinct  from  those  of  the  great  cliff-houses  and 
of  the  modern  pueblo  towns.  There  is  a  wealth  of  material  in  this 
region  in  the  way  of  fine  pottery,  turquoise  beads,  delicate  chipped 
implements,  shell  ornaments  and  bracelets,  etc.  We  learn  much  of 
prehistoric  times  by  exploration  in  the  cliff-houses,  for  the  reason  that 
the  climate  is  exceedingly  arid  and  that  the  objects  are  placed  back 
in  the  rooms  where  no  moisture  can  penetrate  to  them,  even  when  it 
occasionally  rains. 

Therefore,  axes  are  found  in  their  original  handles;  wooden  tools, 
throwing-sticks,  and  baskets,  sandals,  knives  in  wooden  handles, 
mats,  ropes,  and  other  things  that  would  perish  in  the  North  or  the 
South,  are  preserved.  Thus  we  have  splendid  opportunity  to  study 
how  the  ancient  man  mounted  and  used  these  various  tools,  etc. 

Dr.  Yates  and  the  late  Reverend  Mr.  Meredith  have  shown  in  their 
articles1  that  two  separate  cultures  existed  on  the  Pacific  Coast, 

1  Prehistoric  Implements,  sections  7  and  9. 


CONCLUSIONS  363 

one  in  northern,  and  the  other  in  southern  California.  In  addition  to 
these  there  is  the  famous  culture  of  the  Columbia  Valley,  which  is 
somewhat  different  from  others.  Numerous  figures  and  the  delicate 
arrow-points  in  that  region  have  been  presented  in  the  foregoing 
pages.  Along  the  Northwest  Coast  there  is  yet  another  culture. 

The  Canadian  and  Utah  and  Dakota  cultures  have  been  described 
by  Professor  Montgomery  in  Chapter  xxxv.  I  have  run  over  these 
various  cultures  very  rapidly.  Much  more  could  be  said  regarding 
each  one.  The  finding  of  different  kinds  of  implements  on  a  given 
site  may  indicate  different  cultures,  for  it  is  probable  that  a  favorable 
site  was  selected  by  subsequent  tribes  after  it  had  been  abandoned 
by  the  first  occupants.  This  should  be  borne  in  mind  by  students. 

THE    STONE-AGE    POINT    OF    VIEW 

During  the  Boston  meeting  of  the  Anthropological  Association, 
December  27,  1909,  at  the  conclusion  of  a  paper  on  "  Myths  of  the 
Cayapa  Indians  of  South  America,"  by  Dr.  S.  A.  Barrett,  remarks 
were  offered  by  several  gentlemen,  including  Dr.  Franz  Boas.  He 
took  occasion  to  emphasize  how  important  was  Dr.  Barrett's  work 
among  a  people  as  yet  untouched  by  civilization,  and  as  the  point  of 
view  of  these  Cayapa  Indians  was  so  different  from  ours,  it  was  dif 
ficult  for  us  to  understand  their  motives  and  conceptions.  All  truly 
primitive  people  live  in  a  world  so  apart  and  removed  from  our  own 
that  one  should  be  able  by  long  study  to  place  himself  mentally  in 
that  world.  Because  many  observers  were  not  in  sympathy  with  the 
thoughts  of  these  primitive  peoples,  and  could  not  forget  that  they 
(the  observers)  were  the  product  of  a  higher  culture,  therefore, 
much  misinformation  has  been  disseminated  regarding  primitive 
beliefs  and  customs.  Other  ethnologists  spoke  along  similar  lines. 

The  above  is  a  truism  that  every  student  of  prehistoric  times 
should  realize,  and  at  the  risk  of  wearying  my  readers  I  repeat  —  and 
I  trust  these  are  not  vain  repetitions  —  that  we  must  realize  what 
the  term  stone  age  conveys.  Nothing  that  w-e  have  in  use  to-day  was 
known  to  stone-age  man  —  even  so  common  a  thing  as  fire  is  confined 
and  changed  to  suit  our  will. 

Various  effigies,  polished  problematical  forms,  bright  copper, 
shell  or  mica,  pottery,  textile  fabrics,  and  forms  in  wood  --  these 
were  the  extent  of  his  art.  He  knew  no  horizon  beyond  the  stone 
effigy,  the  ornamented  gorget,  etc.  A  colored  stone,  piece  of  copper, 
or  anything  in  stone  unusual  attracted  his  eye.  I  believe  that  these 


364      THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 

appeared  to  him  different  from  ordinary  stones.  For  the  same  rea 
son  he  must  have  considered  hematite  as  more  or  less  of  a  mystery. 
It  is  very  hard  to  work,  and  because  of  its  heaviness  and  the  dif 
ficulty  of  reduction  to  desired  shape,  one  may  surmise  it  appealed 
to  him  as  a  "mystery  stone." 

It  is  clear,  from  the  amount  of  hematite  and  copper  in  public 
and  private  collections,  that  both  were  highly  prized.  That  hematite 
was  far  harder  to  work  than  common  stone  did  not  deter  the  ancient 
man  from  digging,  grinding,  cutting,  and  polishing  the  steel-gray 
hematites  (as  hard  as  any  stone)  to  the  desired  size.  Truly  he 
worked  "at  his  task  with  a  resolute  will,  over  and  over  again."  I 
should  like  to  propose  to  any  person  who  has  lightly  waved  aside 
the  skill  or  patience  of  the  ancient  worker,  that  that  person  select  a 
chunk  of  the  hard  gray  iron  ore  (not  the  soft  kind)  and  set  to  work 
with  a  stone  hammer  and  some  flint  flakes  and  a  block  of  sandstone 
to  make  a  hematite  plummet.  A  week's  labor  on  the  specimen  will 
increase  the  respect  of  the  sceptic  for  the  stone-age  artist. 

We  are  just  beginning  to  appreciate  the  point  of  view  of  the  stone- 
age  man.  At  present  our  knowledge  is  imperfect.  Particularly,  do 
I  feel  this  personally  and  realize  the  responsibility  resting  on  one's 
shoulders  when  one  attempts  to  describe  and  classify,  in  a  large  sense, 
the  stone  implements,  etc.,  of  ancient  times.  Even  if  one  does  one's 
best,  such  a  work  must,  for  the  present  at  least,  remain  a  pioneer 
undertaking,  and  those  who  come  afterwards  will  make  of  the 
faintly  marked  pioneer  trail  a  broad  and  substantial  highway  along 
which  others  may  travel  and  find,  I  trust,  guide-posts  unnecessary. 

\Yhen  we  realize  the  point  of  view,  the  mind,  and  the  concept  of 
the  stone-age  man  fully,  we  shall,  quite  likely,  understand  the  true 
import  of  the  strange  problematical  polished  stones  so  common  in 
the  Mississippi  Valley.  These  stand  for  more  than  mere  ornaments. 
The  very  name  "ceremonial,"  which  was  afterwards  changed  by 
that  able  archaeologist  Professor  Holmes  to  problematical,  is  a  con 
fession  of  ignorance.  These  problematical  forms  are  found  in  Wis 
consin,  West  Virginia,  New  England,  Louisiana,  Ohio,  and  Arkansas, 
and  although  varying  through  a  multitude  of  shapes,  yet  apparently 
convey  substantially  the  same  idea.  To  the  people  who  lived 
entirely  in  the  stone-age  times,  these  must  have  represented  certain 
"sacred  mysteries,"  to  white  men  and  later  Indians  entirely  un 
known.  The  same  is  true  of  the  abnormally  large  axes  in  copper  or 
in  stone,  of  the  large  chipped  implements  in  Tennessee  and  on  the 


CONCLUSIONS  365 

Pacific  Coast.  None  of  these  things  could  have  served  a  real  purpose. 
One  cannot  strike  or  cut  with  the  "ceremonial  swords"  shown  in 
Fig.  161,  neither  can  the  axe  illustrated  in  Fig.  263  A  be  made  use  of 
for  cutting.  Such  things  as  these  illustrate  the  height  or  perfection 
of  stone-age  art,  and  we  must  seek  their  explanation  and  purposes 
along  other  lines  than  those  suggested  by  common  every-day  usage, 
to  which  the  smaller  and  more  easily  made  objects  were  put. 

FIELD    STUDY    NEEDED 

Before  concluding  my  remarks  on  the  stone  age  in  North  America, 
I  would  call  attention  to  the  necessity  of  more  and  careful  field 
work,  and  an  understanding  of  the  difference  between  various  sites 
rather  than  continued  museum  work,  or  the  reading  of  reports  and 
publications.  That  man  who  considers  arts  and  crafts  of  tribes  to 
have  been  pretty  much  the  same  in  America  is  very  ignorant  con 
cerning  real  archaeology.  It  has  been  the  purpose  of  this  volume  to 
emphasize  differences  in  the  arts  and  crafts  among  prehistoric  tribes. 
Archaeology  is  like  any  other  comprehensive  subject;  it  requires 
study,  discriminating  care,  and  enthusiasm.  One  should  further  add, 
it  requires  inspiration.  A  man  who  does  not  love  to  hunt  specimens 
for  the  sake  of  hunting  them  has  not  his  heart  in  the  work. 

We  have  had  many  mounds  examined,  plans  have  been  drawn, 
the  skeletons  carefully  set  down  as  so  many  feet  from  each  other. 
A  report  is  published  in  regard  to  that  mound,  and  instead  of  intel 
ligent  observations  on  the  meaning  of  the  evidence  ascertained,  there 
is  usually  nothing  but  a  dry  and  statistical  statement  of  the  dis 
tances  of  the  skeletons  from  a  given  point.  Of  course  it  is  necessary 
to  make  a  survey  of  mounds  and  other  remains.  And  it  is  equally 
important  to  have  reports,  but  I  do  not  think  that  it  is  necessary  to 
publish  field  notes  —  which  are  no  more  than  survey  notes  —  and 
call  them  a  report.  Many  of  the  reports  published  in  recent  years 
have  missed  the  essential  thing  in  American  archaeology.  They  have 
emphasized  the  mathematical  features  of  our  explorations.  They 
are  as  if  one  published  tabulated  census  reports,  but  offered  no 
explanations  as  to  what  the  number  and  assembling  of  the  people 
in  the  United  States  meant.  If  no  conclusions  of  value  are  to  be 
drawn  from  the  exploration  of  a  given  site,  then  it  seems  to  me  that 
wealthy  people  who  send  out  expeditions  are  wasting  their  money, 
and  the  scientists  their  time.  We  are  training  young  men  in  our 
universities  and  museums  to  measure  mounds  and  village-sites  very 


366      THE   STONE   AGE    IN    NORTH   AMERICA 

carefully.  All  this  is  eminent  and  proper,  but  we  are  losing  sight  of 
the  meaning  of  those  same  village-sites  and  mounds  and  their  rela 
tion  to  others  and  to  prehistoric  culture  in  general. 

The  explorer  Stanley  made  a  statement  in  his  work  "Darkest 
Africa,"  which  I  have  never  forgotten.  The  scientist  Emin  Bey  was 
much  interested  in  examining  a  human  skull  and  measuring  it  very 
carefully  and  setting  down  the  measurements.  Stanley  was  not 
interested  in  the  skull.  He  wished  to  know  something  regarding  the 
life  of  the  man  to  whom  it  once  belonged.  If  some  of  our  students 
would,  for  a*  few  years,  lay  aside  cameras,  ground-plans,  tape-lines, 
and  get  down  to  real  field  work,  much  more  progress  would  ensue. 
The  study  of  sites,  collections,  types,  and  local  conditions  should  be 
placed  first,  it  seems  to  me. 

In  Science,  April  15,  1910,  there  appeared  an  open  letter  written 
by  Professor  B.  C.  Gruenberg  of  De  Witt  Clinton  School,  New  York, 
along  the  very  lines  I  have  indicated.  I  quote  a  paragraph:  - 

"We  all  know  that  there  can  be  no  true  science  that  does  not  rest 
solidly  upon  facts.  But  the  thought  must  often  occur  to  many  of 
us  that  there  is  some  danger,  especially  among  the  younger  scien 
tists,  that  we  may  become  obsessed  with  an  exaggerated  sense  of  the 
value  of  facts  as  such.  Is  there  not  too  much  emphasis  laid  by  many 
professors  in  charge  of  research  students  on  the  mere  accumulation 
of  observational,  statistical,  or  experimental  facts,  with  too  little 
attention  to  that  side  of  science  which  concerns  itself  with  those 
analytical  and  synthetic  processes  that  convert  facts  into  valuable 
ideas?  It  seems  to  me  that  this  latter  kind  of  work  needs  at  the 
present  time  at  least  as  much  encouragement  as  the  other.  Of 
course,  there  is  the  possibility  for  'thinking'  to  degenerate  into 
profitless  speculation;  but  we  are  certainly  as  much  in  need  of  the 
results  of  thinking  about  the  facts  already  accumulated  as  we  are  of 
more  facts." 

Such  studies  as  those  of  Professor  Holmes  on  pottery  and  quar 
ries;  such  explorations  as  Mr.  C.  B.  Moore's  in  the  South;  the  work 
done  by  Yolk  and  Abbott  in  Newr  Jersey,  where  they  very  carefully 
set  aside  the  arg*llite  and  the  quartzite  and  chipped  implements  as 
found  in  different  places  under  different  conditions;  such  work  as 
Professor  Mills  has  done  in  Ohio  in  differentiating  the  Hopewell  and 
the  Fort  Ancient  culture,  are  things  that  will  count,  and  works  that 
will  stand.  A  surveyor  should  measure  mounds,  number  skeletons, 
and  draw  plans.  The  librarian  should  read  reports  and  compile  sta- 


CONCLUSIONS  367 

tistics,  but  it  requires  a  real  archaeologist  to  do  the  work  that  1  have 
referred  to  above. 

Squier  and  Davis,  whose  "Ancient  Monuments  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley"  may  be  justly  considered  our  standard  work  upon  the 
mounds,  not  only  explored,  but  they  drew  conclusions  which,  with 
here  and  there  an  exception,  or  a  slight  change,  will  stand  at  the 
present  time.  For  many  years  Dr.  Cyrus  Thomas  used  all  the  tre 
mendous  energies  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology  to  dispute  the  state 
ments  of  those  hard-working,  painstaking,  philosophical  pioneers 
Squier  and  Davis.  To-day  we  know  that  the  culture  they  described 
is  different  from  the  Shawano,  Cherokee,  or  other  cultures  which 
Thomas  wished  to  establish  in  the  Ohio  Valley.  The  work  of  that 
distinguished  citizen  of  Illinois,  George  Sellars,  will  bear  compari 
son  with  the  work  of  any  other  man  since  his  day  in  the  study  of 
chipped  flint  objects,  and  if  any  one  doubts  the  statement  let  him 
read  and  ponder  upon  Sellars's  complete  narrative  in  the  Smithsonian 
Report  for  1885,  and  then  read  what  has  been  said  since  by  others. 

Aside  from  the  technical  study  of  American  archaeology,  there  is 
a  certain  charm  and  fascination  in  investigation  of  these  ancient 
remains.  Although  it  has  been  thirty  years  since  I  found  my  first 
arro\v-head,  I  never  cease  to  feel  a  thrill  of  pleasure  when,  walking 
about  the  shores  of  lakes  or  streams,  I  happen  to  find  one  of  these 
evidences  of  the  real  and  the  simple  life.  One's  mind,  if  he  is  inclined 
to  dwell  upon  prehistoric  times  in  America,  naturally  reverts  to  the 
past  under  such  circumstances,  and  I  close  this  work  with  a  quota 
tion  from  Dr.  Abbott's  recent  publication,  "When  as  many  a  day 
has  drawn  to  its  close,  while  yet  I  lingered  in  the  field  and  every  sign 
of  white  man's  industry  faded  from  view,  the  scattered  trees  became 
again  a  forest,  the  cry  of  the  cougar  and  bleat  of  the  fawn  were 
heard,  the  bark  of  the  fox  and  howling  of  the  wolf  filled  the  air, 
a  lurid  light  of  a  camp-fire  lit  the  sky;  the  days  of  the  Indian  had 
returned,  nor  did  the  illusion  pass  away  until  homeward  bound,  my 
hand  was  on  the  latch." 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

FOR  obvious  reasons  this  bibliography  is  not  complete;  to  make  an  ex 
haustive  catalogue  of  the  titles  dealing  with  the  stone  age  in  America 
would  require  the  inclusion  of  many  articles  in  out-of-the-way  periodicals 
and  newspapers  that  are  now  lost  or  out  of  print;  in  the  next  place,  if 
made  complete,  even  within  the  limits  of  possibility,  such  a  list  would 
require  a  separate  volume  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  dimensions  of  the 
present  work. 

In  view  of  these  facts,  therefore,  the  attempt  has  been  made,  first,  to 
give  the  publications  to  which  reference  has  been  made  in  the  text;  second, 
to  present  a  list  of  general  works  of  standard  reputation,  most  of  which  are 
provided  either  with  indexes  or  tables  of  contents  raisonnes;  third,  to  give 
some  of  the  more  important  series  of  publications  of  individual  authors 
dealing  especially  with  excavations  whose  results  are  germane  to  the  mat 
ter  of  the  volumes;  and  fourth,  to  set  forth  a  classified  list  of  references  by 
the  use  of  which  a  student  can  at  least  learn  something  about  the  desired 
subject  and  at  the  same  time  may  receive  suggestions  as  to  the  methods 
and  the  literature  necessary  to  further  research. 

In  view  of  the  change  in  archaeological  processes  and  opinions  that  has 
often  occurred  in  a  comparatively  short  space  of  time,  the  arrangement  of 
the  titles  is  made  as  a  whole  in  chronological  order. 

GENERAL   WORKS 

Catlin,  G.    North  American  Indians.    New  York.    1841. 

Squier,  E.  G.,  and  Davis,  E.  H.  Ancient  Monuments  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley.  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge,  I.  1847. 

Squier,  E.  G.    The  Serpent  Symbol.    New  York.    1851. 

Baldwin,  J.  D.    Ancient  America.    New  York.    (1871.) 

Foster,  J.  W.    Prehistoric  Races  of  the  United  States.    Chicago.    1873. 

Jones,  C.  C.    Antiquities  of  the  Southern  Indians.    New  York.    1873. 

Abbott,  C.  C.  The  Stone  Age  in  New  Jersey.  Report  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  1875,  pp.  246-380.  1875. 

Wyman,  J.  Fresh-Water  Shell  Mounds  of  the  St.  John's  River,  Florida. 
Peabody  Academy  of  Science,  Fourth  Memoir.  Salem.  1875. 

Abbott,  C.  C.  Palaeolithic  Implements  in  the  Valley  of  the  Delaware 
River.  Peabody  Museum  Report,  10,  pp.  30  ff.  1877.  Peabody  Mu 
seum  Report,  n,  pp.  225  ff.  1878. 

Conant,  A.  J.    Footprints  of  Vanished  Races.    St.  Louis.    1879. 

MacLean,  J.  P.   The  Mound  Builders.    Cincinnati.    1879. 


370  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Evers,  E.   Ancient  Pottery  of  South  Eastern  Missouri.   St.  Louis  Academy 

of  Science.    1880. 

Short,  J.  T.    The  North  Americans  of  Antiquity.    New  York.    1880. 
Whitney,  J.  D.   The  Auriferous  Gravels  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  California. 

Contributions  to  American  Geology,  vol.  11.   Cambridge.    1880. 
de  Nadaillec,  Marquis.    Pre-Historic  America.  Translated  by  N.  D  Anvers. 

New  York.    1884. 

Mercer,  H.  C.    The  Lenape  Stone.    New  York.    1885. 
McAdams.    Records  of  Ancient  Races.    St.  Louis.    1887. 
Shepherd,  H.  A.   Antiquities  of  the  State  of  Ohio.    Cincinnati.    1887. 
Read,  M.  C.   Archaeology  of  Ohio.    Cleveland. 
Wilson,  T.   Palaeolithic  Period  of  the  Stone  Age.    Report  of    the  United 

States  National  Museum,  1888,  pp.  677  ff.    1888. 
Thruston,  G.  P.    Antiquities  of  Tennessee.    Cincinnati.    1890. 
Fowke,  G.   Stone  Art.   Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  13,  pp.  57  ff. 

1891-92. 
Wilson,  T.   Primitive  Industry.     Report  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 

1892,  pp.  521  ff.  1892. 

Berlin,  A.  F.    Lehigh  Island  and  its   Relics.    The  Archaeologist,  i,  Jan., 

1893,  PP-  13  ff.    1893. 

Nordenskiold,  G.   The  Cliff-Dwellers  of  the  Mesa  Verde.  Stockholm.  1893. 
Schmidt,  E.   Vorgeschichte  Nordamerikas.    Braunschweig.    1894. 
Wilson,  T.  The  Swastika.  Report  of  the  United  States  National  Museum, 

1894,  pp.  763  ff.    1894. 

Prehistoric  Art.    Report  of  the  United  States  National  Mu 
seum,  1896,  pp.  325  ff.    1896. 

Arrow-Points,   Spear-Points,    and     Knives.      Report    of    the 

United  States  National  Museum,  1897,  I,  pp.  811  ff.    1897. 

Thomas,  C.    Introduction  to  the  Study  of  North  American  Archaeology. 

Cincinnati.    1898. 

Dellenbaugh,  F.  S.  The  North  Americans  of  Yesterday.   New  York.  1901. 
Fowke,  G.    Archaeological  History  of  Ohio.    Columbus.    1902. 
Lewis,  A.  B.   Tribes  of  the  Columbia  Valley  and  the  Coast  of  Washington 
and  Oregon.  Memoirs  of  the  American  Anthropological  Association, 
vol.  i,  pp.  147  ff.    Index  and  Bibliography.    1905-1907. 
Abbott,  C.  C.    Archaeologia  Nova  Caesarea.    Three  Pamphlets.    Trenton. 

1907-8. 
Mills,  W.  C.    Certain  Mounds  and  Village  Sites  in  Ohio.    Vol.  i,    1907. 

Vol.  n,  Part  i,    1909. 

Barrett,   S.  A.     The   Ethno-Geography  of  the   Porno  and   Neighboring 
Indians.    University  of   California  Publications  in  American  Archae 
ology  and  Ethnology,  vol.  6,  no.  i.    Bibliography  and  Map.    1908. 
Randall,  E.  O.  The  Masterpieces  of  the  Ohio  Mound  Builders.   Columbus. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  371 

Boas  Anniversary  Volume.    New  York.    1906. 
Putnam  Anniversary  Volume.    New  York.    1909. 
Moorehead,  W.  K.    See  last  pages  of  Bibliography  for  titles. 

WORKS    MORE    PURELY    OF    GENERAL    REFERENCE 

de  Mortillet,  G.  and  A.    Musee  Prehistorique.    Paris.    1881. 

Evans,  Sir  John.    Ancient  Stone  Implements  of  Great  Britain.    London. 

1897- 
Hodge,  F.  W.    Handbook  of  American  Indians  North  of  Mexico.    Part  i. 

Bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  no.  30,  part  I.    1907. 
Forrer,    R.     Reallexikon    der    Prahistorischen,    Klassischen     und    Friih- 

christlichen  Altertiimer.  Berlin  and  Stuttgart.  (1907.) 
Schlemm,  J.  Worterbuch  zur  Vorgeschichte.  Berlin.  1908. 
Dechelette,  J.  Manuel  d'Archeologie,  i.  Paris.  1908. 

SERIAL    REFERENCES    TO    THE    WORKS    OF    INDIVIDUALS 

Boyle,  D.    Compare  the  Archaeological  Reports  of  the  Province  of  Ontario, 
being  parts  of  the  Appendices  of  the  Reports  of  the  Minister  of  Educa 
tion  of  Ontario.    Toronto,  from  1887. 
Beauchamp,  W.  M.   Aboriginal  Chipped  Stone  Implements  of  New  York. 

Bulletin  of  the  New  York  State   Museum,   vol.   4, 

no.  16.    1897. 
Polished    Stone    Articles    used     by    the    New    York 

Aborigines.      Bulletin    of    the    New    York    State 

Museum,  vol.  4,  no.  18.    1897. 
Earthenware  of  the  New  York  Aborigines.  Bulletin 

of  the  New  York  State  Museum,    vol.    5,    no.    22. 

1898. 
Aboriginal   Occupation   of   New   York.     Bulletin   of 

the  New  York  State  Museum,  vol.  7,  no.  32.  1900. 
Wampum  and  Shell  Articles  used  by  the  New  York 

Indians.    Bulletin  of  the  New  York  State  Museum, 

vol.  8,  no.  41.    1901. 

Horn  and   Bone  Implements  of  the  New  York   In 
dians.    Bulletin  of  the  New  York  State  Museum, 

no.  50.    1902. 
Metallic    Implements    of    the    New    York    Indians. 

Bulletin  of  the  New  York  State  Museum,  no.  55. 

1902. 
Metallic    Ornaments    of    the    New    York    Indians. 

Bulletin  of  the  New  York  State  Museum,  no.  73, 

Archeology  8.    1903. 
Perch  Lake  Mounds.      Bulletin    of    the    New    York 

State   Museum,   no.   87,   Archaeology    10.    1905. 


372  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Beauchamp,  W.  M.  Aboriginal  Use  of  Wood  in  New  York.  Bulletin  of 
the  New  York  State  Museum,  no.  89,  Archaeology 
ii.  1905. 

Aboriginal  Place  Names  of  New  York.  Bulletin  of 
the  New  York  State  Museum,  no.  108,  Archaeo 
logy  12.  1907. 

Civil,  Religious,  and  Mourning  Councils,  and  the 
Ceremonies  of  Adoption  of  the  New  York  Indians. 
Bulletin  of  the  New  York  State  Museum,  no.  113, 
Archaeology  13.  1907. 

Erie  Village  and  Burial  Sites.    Bulletin  of  the  New 

York  State  Museum,  no.  117,  Archaeology  14.  1907. 

Mills,  W.  C.    Compare  the  following  references  to  the  Ohio  Archaeological 

and  Historical  Quarterly: 
Vol.  vm,  pp.  309  ff.    Field-Work. 
Vol.  xm,  pp.  129  ff.    Gartner  Mound  and  Site. 
Vol.  xv,  pp.  45  ff.    Baum  Site. 
Vol.  xvi,  pp.  113  ff.    Harness  Mound. 
Vol.  xvni,  pp.  269  ff.    Seip  Mound. 

Moore,  C.  B.  Compare  the  following  references  to  the  Journal  of  the  Acad 
emy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia: 
Certain  Sand  Mounds  of  the  St.  John's  River,  Fla.    Part  I. 

1894. 
Certain  Sand   Mounds  of   the  St.   John's   River,    Florida. 

Part  n.  1894. 

Certain  River  Mounds  of  Duval  County,  Fla. 
Two  Sand  Mounds  on  Murphy  Island,  Fla. 
Certain  Sand  Mounds  of  the  Ocklawaha  River,  Fla.    1895. 
Certain  Sand  Mounds  of  the  Georgia  Coast.    1897. 
Certain  Aboriginal  Mounds  of  the  Coast  of  South  Carolina. 
Certain  Aboriginal  Mounds  of  the  Savannah  River. 
Certain  Aboriginal  Mounds  of  the  Altamaha  River.   , 
Recent  Acquisitions. 
A  Cache  of  Pendant  Ornaments.    1898. 
Certain  Aboriginal  Remains  of  the  Alabama  River.    1899. 
Certain  Antiquities  of  the  Florida  West  Coast.    1900. 
Ce'rtain   Aboriginal    Remains  of   the   North   West  Florida 

Coast.    Part  I.    1901. 
Certain   Aboriginal   Remains  of   the   North   West   Florida 

Coast.    Part  n.    1902. 

Certain  Aboriginal  Remains  of  the  Tombigbee  River.  1901. 
Certain  Aboriginal  Mounds  of  Florida  Central  West  Coast. 
Certain  Aboriginal  Mounds  of  the  Apalachicola  River.  1903. 
Certain  Aboriginal  Remains  of  the  Black  Warrior  River. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  373 

Moore,  C.  B.  Certain    Aboriginal    Remains   of    the    Lower    Tombigbee 

River. 
Certain  Aboriginal  Remains  of  Mobile  Bay  and  Mississippi 

Sound. 

Miscellaneous  Investigations  in  Florida.    1905. 
Moundville  Revisited. 
Crystal  River  Revisited. 
Mounds  of  the  Lower    Chattahoochee    and    Lower   Flint 

Rivers. 

Notes  of  the  Ten  Thousand  Islands,  Florida.    1907. 
Certain  Mounds  of  Arkansas  and  Mississippi.    1908. 
Antiquities  of  the  Ouachita  Valley.    1909. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  BY  SUBJECTS 
ADOBE. 

Hodge,  F.  W.   The  Archaeologist,  vol.  in,  p.  265.    1895. 

American  Anthropologist,  vol.  10,  p.  302.    1897.   (Adobe 

balls.) 
Holmes,  W.  H.    American  Anthropologist,  vol.  7,  n.  s.,  p.  205.    1905. 

ADZES. 

Crosby,  H.  A.    Wisconsin  Archaeologist,  July,  1903,  pp.  91   ff.    "The 

Triangular  Stone  Adze."    1903. 

Smith,  H.  I.    American  Anthropologist,  vol.  8,  n.  s.,  pp.  298  ff.    1906. 
Willoughby,  C.  C.    American  Anthropologist,  vol.  9,  n.  s.,  pp.  296  ff. 

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(u. 

V 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF  /> 


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Yucatan.    1897. 
Willoughby,  C.  C.    Papers  of  the  Peabody  Museum,  vol.  i,  6,  p.  24. 

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Henshaw,  H.  W.    Bulletin  of  the  Bureau    of  Ethnology,  2,  pp.  5  ff. 

California.    1887. 
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PERFORATORS. 

McGuire,  J.  D.    Report  of  the  United  States  National  Museum,  1894, 

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Mason,  O.  T.    International  Congress  of  Anthropology,  p.  73.    1894. 
Sherman,  G.  M.    American  Archaeologist,  1898,  p.  45.    1898. 
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Brown,  E.   American  Antiquarian,  vol.  2,  p.  257.    1880. 
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Smith,  H.  I.   Records  of  the  Past,  1905,  p.  125.   Colorado  Valley.    1905. 
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Pittier  de  Fabriga,  H.    Memoirs  of  the  American  Anthropological  Asso 
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Beauchamp,  W.  M.   American  Antiquarian,  vol.  4,  p.  326.    1882. 
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Peet,  S.  D.    American  Antiquarian,  vol.  13,  p.  267.    1891. 
McGuire,  J.  G.    American  Anthropologist,  vol.  5,  p.  170.    1892. 
Peet,  S.  D.   American  Antiquarian,  vol.  14,   p.  69.    1892. 
McWhorter,  L.  V.   The  Archaeologist,  1893,  p.  56.   West  Virginia.    1893. 
Clark,  C.  W.   The  Archaeologist,  vol.  2,  p.  84.    Mississippi.    1894. 
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Beauchamp,  W.  M.   The  Archaeologist,  vol.  2,  p.  349.    1894. 
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Laidlaw,  G.  E.    American  Antiquarian,  vol.  19,  p.  138.    Ontario.    1897. 
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Eastern  United  States.    1898-99. 

Laidlaw,  G.  E.  American  Archaeologist,  1899,  p.  16.    1899. 
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Snyder,  J.  F.,  and  Muhlig,  F.  M.   The  Antiquarian,  1897,  p.  101.    1897. 
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Holmes,  W.  H.    Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  4,  pp.  257  ff. 

Pueblo.    1882-83. 
Report  of   the   Bureau  of   Ethnology,   4,   pp.   361    ff. 

Mississippi  Valley.    1882-83. 
Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,    4,    pp.  437   ff. 

Form  and  Ornament.    1882-83. 
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1891. 

Crawford,  J.    The  Archaeologist,  vol.  3,  p.  220,    Nicaragua.    1895. 

Nelson,  E.  W.  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  18,  I,  p.  147. 
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Holmes,  W.  H.  American  Anthropologist,  1902,  p.  118.  Indian  Terri 
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Dixon,  R.  B.  Bulletin  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
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Montgomery,  H.  American  Anthropologist,  vol.  8,  p.  644.  Dakota. 
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Blackman,  E.    Records  of  the  Past,  1907,  p.  78.    Nebraska.    1907. 

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SPINDLE-WHORLS. 

Holmes,  W.  H.  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  6,  p.  149.   Chiriqui. 

1884-85. 
Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  20,  p.  33.    Eastern 

United  States.    1898-99. 
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Montgomery,  H.   American  Anthropologist,  vol.  8,  n.s.,  p.  645.   Dakota. 

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Montgomery,  H.   American  Anthropologist,  vol.  10,  n.  s.,  p.  35.    Mani 
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SPUDS. 

Brown,  C.  E.    Wisconsin  Archeologist,  vol.  2,  I,  pp.  15  ff.    1902. 
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Holmes,  W.  H.  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  15,  pp.  106  ff. 
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STONE  GRAVES. 

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Mason,  O.  T.     American  Anthropologist,  1900,  pp.  657  ff.     A  general 
discussion.    1900. 


4o8  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

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Read,  M.  C.   American  Antiquarian,  vol.  2,  p.  53.    1879. 

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WAR-CLUBS. 

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BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  THE  WRITINGS  OF  WARREN  K.  MOOREHEAD 

As  nearly  all  of  my  own  articles,  reports,  and  books  deal  with  archae 
ological  subjects,  I  have  thought  best  to  include  a  bibliography  of  these, 
placed  separately,  although  a  few  are  referred  to  in  various  places  in  the 
preceding  pages  of  the  Bibliography. 

American  Antiquarian,  The,  1887-1901.    Numerous  articles. 
American  Archaeologist,  1897-1899.  Columbus,  Ohio.    Numerous  articles. 
Archaeologist,  The,  1893-1895.    Columbus,  Ohio.    Numerous  articles. 
Are  the  Hopewell  Copper  Objects  Prehistoric?   American  Anthropologist, 
January-March,  1903. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  409 

Bird  Stone  Ceremonial,  The.  31  pp.  42  figures.  Large  pamphlet. 
Saranac  Lake,  N.  Y.  1899. 

Bird  Stone  Ceremonial  and  Suggestion  of  Archax>logic  Nomenclature. 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  Report.  1900. 

Cincinnati  Society,  Natural  History.  Various  papers  in  Reports,  1888- 
1900. 

Commercial  vs.  Scientific  Collecting.  Ohio  Archaeological  and  Historical 
Quarterly,  January,  1904. 

Exhibit  from  M.  C.  Hopewell's  Farm,  Description  of  the.  Ross  County, 
Ohio.  20  pp.  9  full-page  plates.  Chicago,  1893. 

Expedition  to  the  Southwest.  A  score  of  illustrated  articles  in  the  Illus 
trated  American,  1892.  New  York. 

Exploration  of  Jacobs  Cavern,  The.  Bulletin  I,  Department  of  Archae 
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Field  Diary  of  an  Archaeological  Collector,  The.  71  large  pp.,  42  figures. 
American  Inventor,  Washington,  D.  C.  March,  i9O3-April,  1904. 

Field  Work,  Report  of.  108  pp.  45  figs.  Vol.  v  (1897)  of  the  Ohio  State 
Archaeological  and  Historical  Society  Report.  Columbus,  Ohio. 

Field  Work,  Report  of.  96  pp.  22  figures.  Vol.  vn  (1898)  of  the  Ohio 
State  Archaeological  and  Historical  Society  Report.  Columbus,  Ohio. 

First  Report  of  the  Curator  of  the  Archaeological  Museum  of  the  Ohio  State 
University.  Also  Preliminary  Exploration  of  Ohio  Caves.  17  pp.; 
a  table.  Columbus,  1895. 

Fort  Ancient.  129  pp.  37  full-page  plates;  large  folding  map.  Cincinnati, 
1889.  Robert  Clarke  Co. 

Fort  Ancient,  Description  of.  16  pp.  12  figures  and  large  map.  Vol.  iv 
(1896)  of  the  Ohio  State  Archaeological  and  Historical  Society  Report. 
Columbus,  Ohio. 

Fort  Ancient,  the  Great  Prehistoric  Earth  Work  of  Warren  County,  Ohio. 
1 66  pp.  Pt.  n,  Bulletin  iv,  Department  of  Archaeology,  Phillips  Acad 
emy,  Andover,  Mass.  1908. 

Ghost  Dance,  The.  6  illustrated  articles  appearing  in  the  Illustrated  Amer 
ican.  New  York,  January-March,  1891. 

Gravel  Kame  Burials  in  Ohio.  American  Association  for  the  Advance 
ment  of  Science  Report.  1902. 

Hopewell  Group,  The.  About  60  pages.  70  figures.  Continued  from  May, 
1897,  to  February,  1898,  in  the  American  Archaeologist.  Columbus,  O. 

Indian  Tribes  of  Ohio,  The.  109  pp.  Vol.  vn  (1898)  of  the  Ohio  Archae 
ological  and  Historical  Society  Report.  Columbus,  Ohio. 

Metzger  Mound,  The.  10  pp.  4  figures.  Proceedings  of  the  Academy  of 
Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia.  1894. 

Modern  and  Prehistoric  Village  Sites  in  Ohio,  compared.  American  Asso 
ciation  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  Report.  1894. 


4io  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Narrative  of  Explorations  in  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  etc.  Bulletin  in,  De 
partment  of  Archaeology,  Phillips  Academy,  Andover,  Mass.  200  pp. 
82  figures.  1906. 

New  Science,  A.,  at  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition.  North  American 
Review,  1903. 

Ohio  State  Archaeological  and  Historical  Reports,  The.  Numerous  articles. 
1894-1895. 

Popular  Science  News.    1895-1900.    New  York.    Numerous  articles. 

Prehistoric  Implements.  621  figures.  431  pp.  Saranac  Lake,  New  York. 
June,  1900. 

Prehistoric  Relics.    176  pp.    1 80  figures.   Andover,  Mass.  1904. 

Primitive  Man  in  Ohio.  246pp.  54  figures.  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons.  New 
York,  1892. 

Primitive  Cultures  in  Ohio,  A  Study  of.  Putnam  Anniversary  Volume, 
p.  137.  Washington,  D.  C.,  1909. 

Recent  Archaeological  Discoveries  in  Ohio.  Scientific  American  Supple 
ment,  August,  1892. 

Red  Cloud,  A  Sketch  of  His  Life.    Boston  Transcript,  December  22,  1909. 

Remarks  upon  the  Sheet  Copper  Designs  of  the  Hopewell  Group,  Ohio. 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  Report.  1893. 

Report  of  the  Committee  on  Archaeological  Nomenclature.  American 
Anthropologist,  March,  1909. 

Ruins  at  Aztec  on  the  Rio  La  Plata,  New  Mexico.  Explored  1892.  Amer 
ican  Anthropologist,  June,  1908. 

Ruins  of  Southern  Utah,  The.  American  Association  for  the  Advancement 
of  Science  Report.  1892. 

Science.    1890-1903.    Numerous  articles. 

Singular  Copper  Implements  and  Ornaments  from  the  Hopewell  Group, 
Ross  County,  Ohio.  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science  Report.  1892. 

So-called  "  Gorgets,"  The.  Bulletin  n,  Department  of  Archaeology,  Phillips 
Academy.  loopp.  18  plates.  Andover,  Mass,  1906.  Co-author  with 
Dr.  C.  Peabody. 

Unknown  Forms  of  Stone  Objects.  Some  6  pp.  9  figures.  Records  of  the 
Past,  September,  1904.  Washington,  D.  C. 

Wilson,  The  Late  Dr.  Thomas.  American  Association  for  the  Advance 
ment  of  Science.  Meeting  at  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  1902. 


INDEX 


Abbott,  C.  C.,  i.  345  H.  350. 

Abbott,  G.  B.,  Corning,  California,  II,  103. 

Acaxes,  n,  348. 

Adaptation,  n,  354  ff- 

Adzes,  i,  254,  273  ff.;  conclusions,  I.  322  fl.;  copper, 

n,  189. 

Adze,  triangular,  I,  274. 
Afton,  Indian  Territory  (Oklahoma),  I,  215. 
Agricultural  implements,  chapter  ix,  175  ff. 
Agua  Caliente,  axes,  i,  316. 
Alaska,  woman's  knife,  n,  311. 
Algonquian  pottery,  n,  278. 
Algonquins,  II,  330. 

Allentown,  Pennsylvania,  i,  35 ;  knives,  I,  86. 
Altar- mounds,  containing    finer    specimens,    H.    63; 

hematites,  n,  295- 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  New  York, 

i,  427;  n,  302. 

Amulets  in  Eastern  Canada,  n,  332. 
Analyses  of  specimens,  11,  353. 
Ancient  vs.  modern  art,  n,  355. 
Anderson,  Clifford,  n,  250. 
Animal  effigies,  n,  20. 
Antiquity  of  pottery-making,  n,  294. 
Antler  in  Dakota,  n,  340. 
Antler-tips,  as  arrow-points,  n,  134. 
Apaches,  n,  354- 
Appalachian  pottery,  n,  278. 
"  Archaeologia  Nova  Caesarea,"  n,  350. 
Archaeological  map  of  Ohio,  n,  348. 
Arizona,  chipped  implements,  i,  244;  rings,  i,  442. 
Arkansas,    chipped    implements,    I,    238;    engraved 

disc,  i,  452. 
Armlets,  n,  335- 
Army  and  Medical  Museum,  Washington,  D.  C.,  i, 

121. 

Arnold,  B.  W.,  Albany,  New  York,  n,  311. 
Arrow-heads  in  eastern  Canada,  n,  331;  Canadian 

Plains,  n,  334;  Utah,  n,  338;  Dakota,  n,  341. 
Arrow-point,  analyzed,  I,  100. 
Arrow-points  embedded  in  bone,  I,  108. 
Arrow-points,  manufacture,  i,  58. 
Arrow-points,  "rotary,"  i,  68. 
Arrow-shaft  reducers,  n,  134. 
Arrow-wounds,  I,  112. 

Art  at  its  best  before  European  contact,  n,  67. 
Art  in  flint-chipping,  I,  135. 
Artifacts,  number  available  for  study,  I,  10. 
Ash-pits  as  preservatives,  n,  136. 
Atlantic  Coast,  shells,  II,  118,  120. 
Atlatls,  Utah,  n,  336. 

Awls  of  bone,  n,  134;  in  eastern  Canada,  H,  330. 
Axes,  i,  186  ff.;  cached,  I,  221;  manufacture,  I,  226  ff.; 

conclusions,  i,  322  ff.;  copper,  n,  180. 

BainbridRe,  Ohio,  large  blade,  I,  233. 

Banded  slate,  material  for   problematical  forms,  i, 

343- 
Bangles  of  copper,  n,  225. 


"  Banner  "  stones,  i.  346;  of  copper,  n,  224;  in  eastern 
Canada,  n,  332. 

Bar-amulets,  i,  402. 

Barbed  axes,  i,  312. 

Bark,  Dakota,  n,  339. 

Barnard,  W.  C.,  i,  43. 

Barr,  James  A.,  I,  154. 

Barrett.  Professor  S.  A.,  pipes,  H.  88;  Cayapa  In 
dians,  ii,  363. 

Basalt,  n,  in. 

Baskets,  n,  235. 

Batrachians,  represented  in  pottery,  11,  287. 

Bay-bah-dwung-gay-aush  ("Daydodge"),  n,  356. 

"  Bayonet-backed  spear-points,"  of  copper,  11,  210. 

Beads,  i,  355,  453;  of  shell,  n,  118;  of  bone,  n,  134; 
of  copper,  n,  224;  of  glass,  n,  227. 

Beasley,  B.,  Montgomery,  Alabama,  n,  121. 

Beauchamp,  Dr.  Wm.,  i.  260,  380;  n,  14. 

Bell-shaped  pestles,  n,  102. 

Benedict,  F.  M.,  n,  202. 

Beveled  points,  of  copper,  n,  202. 

Bicaves,  i,  443  ff.;  n,  350. 

Bird,  much  in  evidence  in  prehistoric  sculpture,  u, 
80;  pottery,  n,  287. 

Bird-stones  in  eastern  Canada,  u,  332. 

Bird-stones,  11,  4  ff .;  unfinished,  11,  8. 

Black  Hills,  ii,  362. 

Bludgeon,  of  copper,  n,  224. 

Bluffs,  worked  into  mortars,  ii,  102. 

Boas,  Professor  Franz,  n,  363. 

Boat-shaped  objects,  i,  341,  402. 

Bone,  in  general,  n,  134  ff.;  as  material  for  orna 
ments,  i,  358. 

Borers,  in  eastern  Canada,  n,  33 1- 

Boulders,  as  mortars,  ii,  102. 

Boulder  ruin  culture,  ii,  362. 

Bows,  classified,  I,  105. 

Bows  and  arrows,  i,  100  ff. 

Bowls  from  tree-knots,  I,  288. 

Boyle,  Professor  David,  ii,  17. 

Bracelets,  i,  356;  of  shell,  n,  132;  of  hom.  n.  154- 

Bragg's  collection  of  pipes,  n,  89. 

Braiding,  methods,  n,  242. 

Brewerton,  New  York,  I,  270. 

British  Museum,  n,  89. 

Broken  winged  forms,  I,  379. 

Brower,  J.  V.,  n,  153- 

Brown,  C.E.,  Wisconsin,  etc.,  i,  ii,  180,230,  306,  374. 
386,  418:  n,  115.  156,  161,  294.  304. 

Buffalo,  classification  of  uses,  i,  207;  extermination, 
i,  208-209;  bones,  n,  150. 

Buffalo  hides,  preparation,  I,  208. 

Bull-roarers,  i,  416. 

Burial  of  problematical  forms,  I,  347. 

Busycon  shells,  ii,  122. 

"Butterfly"  stones,  i,  341. 

Cabeza  de  Vaca.  i.  02. 

Caches,   flakes,  etc..  i,  57.   166;    leaf-shaped  imple- 


4I2 


INDEX 


ments,  i,  138;  flint  objects,  i,  216;  bowls,  n, 
112. 

California,  quarries,  i,  35',  obsidian  blades,  I,  232; 
rings,  i,  442;  pestles,  n,  103. 

Calumet  pipe,  11,  41. 

Canada,  northeastern,  celts,  adzes,  and  gouges,  I, 
273;  harpoons,  n,  137. 

Canadian  culture  areas,  n,  363. 

Cannel-coal,  gorget,  I,  373- 

Cannibals,  n,  348. 

Canoes,  manufacture,  I,  280. 

Carolina,  ear-bobs,  i,  356;  shells,  II,  122. 

Carr,  A.  B.,  Etna  Mills,  n,  308. 

Carr,  Lucien,  i,  350. 

Carvings  on  pipes,  n,  48. 

Catlin,  collection  of  Indian  portraits,  I,  52. 

Catlinite,  n,  41;  a  comparatively  recent  mineral,  n, 
Si. 

Catlinite  quarries,  n,  42. 

Caves,  of  Kentucky  and  the  Ozarks,  n,  235- 

Cave-Dweller  culture,  n,  362. 

Cayapa  Indians,  n,  363. 

Celts,  i,  1 86  ff.;  (ground),  I,  252  ff.;  conclusions,  I, 
322  ff.;  of  bone,  n,  134. 

Celts  in  eastern  Canada,  n,  331- 

Cemeteries,  Tennessee,  i,  164. 

Central  America,  metates,  H,  116. 

Central  and  western  Pennsylvania  culture  group,  n, 
359. 

"  Ceremonials,"  I,  346. 

Ceremonial  pipes,  n,  57. 

"  Ceremonial  swords,"  i,  162. 

Chaco  Group,  n,  133. 

Chamberlin,  T.  C.,  i,  34. 

Champlain,  Lake,  i,  236. 

Chandler,  G.  P.,  Knoxville,  Tennessee,  I,  455. 

Charleston,  S.  C.,  Museum,  I,  10. 

"  Charms,"  I,  346. 

Chattanooga,  Tennessee,  discoidals,  i,  451. 

Chesapeake  region,  chipped  implements,  i,  236. 

Chipped  implements,  Sellars's  remarks,  i,  48  ff.; 
types:  knives,  chapter  v,  p.  80  ff .;  projectile  points, 
chapter  vi,  p.  99  ff.;  chapter  vn,  p.  127  ff.;  un 
usual  forms,  chapter  vm,  p.  154  ff.;  conclusions,  i, 
232  ff. 

Chippewa  Indians,  n,  159,  167. 

Chipping-tools  of  bone,  n,  134. 

Chisels,  copper,  n,  184. 

Choice  of  materials,  i,  294  ff . 

Chunky  stones,  I,  444. 

Cincinnati  (Ohio),  Art  Museum,  I,  334- 

Classification,  by  Committee  on  Nomenclature,  I, 
23  ff. 

Classification,  need  of,  i,  9;  presented,  31  ff .;  of  pot 
tery,  n,  278;  of  hematites,  n,  301. 

Classification,  plans  for,  I,  10  ff . 

Claws,  as  ornaments,  i,  356. 

Cliff-Dwellers,  axes,  I,  312,  316;  mano-stones,  n,  103. 

Cliff-Dweller  country,  pottery,  II,  257. 

Cliff-Dweller  culture,  n,  362. 

Cliff  ruins  in  Utah,  n,  336. 

Cloth,  as  wrapping  for  copper  objects,  n,  234. 

Coffin-shaped  gorgets,  i,  341. 

Collie,  Professor  G.  L.,  I,  289. 

Columbia  Valley,  I,  233. 

Columbia  Valley  culture  area,  n,  363. 

Conclusions  of  "Stone  Age,"  n,  344  ff. 

Conical  projectile  points  of  copper,  n,  206. 


Conventional  design,  n,  288. 
Conventionalization,  11,  288. 
Copper,  discovery  of,  n,  168;  distribution  of,  n,  174; 

fabrication  of,  n,  172  ff.;  in  general,  n,  161  ff.; 

manufacture   of,   aboriginal,   II,    165;   in   eastern 

Canada,  n,  332;  in  Plains  of  Canada,  n,  335;  in 

Dakota,  n,  342. 

Copper-casting,  not  aboriginal,  n,  173,  174. 
Cord  for  attaching  ear-rings,  n,  227. 
Cores  (Flint  Ridge,  O.),  Fig.  27,  I,  p.  33. 
Corn  (maize),  H,  96. 
"  Corn-shellers,"  n,  314. 
Cornstalk,  n,  345. 
Coronado's  historian,  n,  348. 
Coshocton,  Ohio,  i,  35. 
Crescents,  i,  341,  402;  of  copper,  II,  228. 
Crosby,  H.  A.,  I,  274. 

Crosses,  as  decoration,  I,  404;  on  shell,  n,  131. 
Crow  Indians,  necklaces,  I,  216. 
Culture  groups,    n,  357  ff. 
Cumberland  Valley  (Tennessee  and  Kentucky),  n, 

123;  pottery,  H,  256. 
Cup-stones,  11,  314  ff. 
Cushing,  F.  H.,  i,  u;  "gorgets  as  bases,"  i,  412  ; 

Piney  Branch,  I,  39;  copper,  n,  173. 
Cylinders  of  copper  (beads),  n,  225. 

Dakota,  culture  area,  n,  363. 

Dakota  Indians,  n,  166,  167. 

Deer,  n,  150. 

Degeneration,  of  forms,  I,  32;  of  ceremonial,  II,  61. 

Delaware  River,  i,  35;  axes,  I,  323;  copper,  n,  174. 

Delaware  Valley  and  region  (culture  group),  n, 
359- 

Denver  Museum,  Colorado,  n,  235. 

Digging-tools  (see  also  Agricultural  implements'),  of 
shell,  n,  120. 

Discs,  i,  98;  cached,  I,  216;  of  copper,  u,  180;  of  clay, 
II,  264. 

Discoidal  stones,  I,  443  ff. 

Discus-thrower,  figure  in  resemblance  on  shell  gor 
get,  II,  125. 

Disease  among  aborigines,  n,  346. 

Diversity  of  cultures  as  an  argument  for  antiquity, 
n,  353- 

Division  of  labor,  I,  54. 

Domestic  science,  n,  137. 

Dominion  Museum,  Toronto,  Ontario,  I,  334. 

Dorsey,  G.  A.,  i,  6. 

"Double-bitted"  axes,  i,  307. 

Douglas,  A.  E.,  I,  402. 

Dress  of  American  Indians,  i,  350. 

Drift-copper,  in  Wisconsin  and  Michigan,  n,  231. 

Drills,  as  war-points,  I,  122. 

Eastern  Canada,  in  stone  age,  H.  Montgomery,  n, 

330. 

Eastman,  Dr.  C.  A.,  I,  249. 
Eddyville,  Kentucky,  shell  gorget,  n,  125. 
Etowah  Group,  Georgia,  n,  26. 
Evolution  of  ornaments,  I,  332. 
Extreme  North,  absence  of  pottery,  n,  248. 
Folk-lore,  value  of,  I,  6. 
Eagle,  realistically  treated,  n,  288. 
Far-piercing,  I,  353-354- 
Ear-plugs,  of  copper,  n,  227. 
Ear-rings,  of  copper,  n,  226. 
Eastern  Canada  culture  group,  II,  358. 


INDEX 


Effigies,  ii,  i  ff.;  of  shell,  n,  132;  of  bone,  n,  134;  of 

clay,  n,  264. 

Effigy  pestles,  n,  114;  pipes,  n,  57. 
Egyptian  pottery,  n,  .'78. 
Elk,  n,  150. 

Ellsworth,  VV.  H.,  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin,  i,  240. 
Eskimo  harpoons,  n,  137. 
Eyed  projectile  ppints  of  copper,  n,  202, 

Feather  objects  in  Utah,  n,  337- 

Fewkes,  Dr.  J.  W.,  shell  effigies,  n.  133. 

Field  Museum,  Chicago,  Illinois,  I,  232,  334. 

Field  study,  n,  365  ff. 

Figured  stamp,  n,  286. 

Finger-rings,  i,  442;  of  shell,  n,  132;  of  copper,  n, 

226. 

Finishing-shops,  I,  37~38. 
Fishes  represented  in  pottery,  11,  287. 
Fish-bladders  as  ornaments,  I,  356. 
Fish-hooks,  n,  134;  of  copper,  11,  222. 
Fishing  by  harpoons,  n,  140. 
Fish-nets,  n,  141. 
Five  Nations,  n,  330. 
Flint  celts,  classified,   I,  191;   rare  at  Flint   Ridge, 

Ohio,  i,  196. 
Flint  Ridge,  Ohio,  i,  35. 
Florida,  chipped  implements,  i,  239;  shells,  II,  122; 

copper,  ii,  174. 
Fluted  celts,  i,  272. 
Fluted  stone  axes,  i,  316  ff. 
Fort  Ancient,  Ohio,  I,  373- 
Fort  Ancient  culture,  n,  250. 
Fowke,  G.,  i,  10;  on  quarrying,  I,  36;  on  discoidal 

stones,  i,  447;  on  copper,  n,  173. 
Franck,  H.  W.  n,  360. 
Frankfort,  Ohio,  gorget,  i,  373. 

Game-bones,  as  "good  medicine,"  i,  439. 

Georgia,  chipped  implements,  i,  238;  copper,  n,  174. 

Gerend,  A.  n,  206. 

Glacial  man,  i,  34. 

Gorgets,  i,  341  and  passim;  in  general,  i,  362  ff.;  re 
made,  i,  362,  374;  re-perforated,  i,  367;  on  skele 
tons,  i,  372;  of  shell,  n,  122  ff.;  of  copper,  n,  180, 
227;  in  eastern  Canada,  n,  331. 

Gouges,  i,  254;  conclusions,  I,  322  ff.;  copper,  n,  188; 
in  eastern  Canada,  ii,  331. 

Gourds,  n,  238. 

Graves,  occurrence  of  copper  in,  n,  233. 

Great  Plains,  large  proportion  cf  scrapers  on,  I,  205. 

Greece,  pottery,  n,  278. 

Greenstone,  i,  300. 

Grooves,  variety,  I,  326. 

Grooved  stone  axes,  i,  287  ff.;  classified  I,  306-307, 
312. 

Ground  stone,  I,  251  ff. 

Gruenberg,  Professor  B.  C.,  n,  367. 

Gulf  of  California,  shells,  n,  132. 

Gulf  States,  pottery,  n.  247. 

Gums  for  fastening  the  hafting.  i,  286. 

Hafting,  scrapers,  i,  205;   celts,  i,  284;  "spuds."  I, 

430;  bone,  ii,  151. 
Hair-dressing,  I,  356. 
Hairpins,  I,  210. 
Hamilton,  H.  P.,  I,  242;  n,  161. 
Hammers,  Canadian  Plains,  n,  333;  Utah,  n,  338; 

Dakota,  n,  341. 


Hammer-stones,  I,  36,  224  ff.;  types.  I,  230. 

"  Handbook  of  American  Indians,"  compared  with 
"  The  Stone  Age."  i,  i;  problematical  forms,  I,  343. 

Hand-hatchet,  i.  197,  270. 

Handles,  fastened  with  sinews  and  gum,  i,  286;  of 
bone,  n,  134. 

Harpoons,  u,  134;  of  copper,  n,  214;  of  bone  in  east 
ern  Canada,  li,  330. 

Hatchets,  i,  252. 

Head-dresses,  n,  134. 

Hematite,  where  found,  n,  295;  plummets,  n,  295. 

Hematite  objects,  cached,  i,  221;  in  general,  n,  295  ff. 

Herrmann,  R.,  Dubuque,  Iowa,  II,  159. 

Hiawatha  traditions,  n,  356. 

Hodge,  F.  W.,  i,  ii. 

Hoes,  of  shell,  n,  120. 

Holmes,  W.  H.,  i,  10,  34.  289;  Potomac-Chesapeake 
Province,  I,  38;  Afton,  Indian  Territory  (Okla 
homa),  i,  215;  problematical  forms,  1,346;  quarries, 
ii,  104;  shell  objects,  n,  124;  pottery,  ii,  247. 

Hopewell  Group,  cache  of  discs,  i,  218;  value  of 
beads,  n,  122. 

Horses,  unknown  to  aborigines,  n,  366. 

Hostility  of  Indians  to  whites,  n,  366. 

Houmas,  n,  350. 

Hrdlicka,  Dr.  A.,  ii,  352. 

Human  effigies,  n,  25. 

Human  features  in  flint,  i,  162;  on  pottery,  H,  287. 

Hupa  Indians,  n,  69. 

Hurons,  n,  330. 

Ice,  celts  used  for  chopping,  i,  270. 

Illinois,  chipped  implements,  i,  242;  copper,  n,  174; 

culture,  n,  360. 
Impressions  of  fabrics,  ii,  235. 
Incised  vs.  plastic  designs,  n,  288. 
Indians,  compared  with  Australians  and  Africans,  I, 

331. 

Indian  Territory   (Oklahoma),  I,   86;  quarries,  135. 
Insertion,  inlaying,  n,  155. 
Invention  of  specialized  tools,  n,  286. 
Iowa,  chipped  implements,  i,  242;  bird-stones,  n,  5; 

copper,  n,  174;  State  Museum,  n,  314. 
Iron,  use  of,  n,  344;  arrow-points  of,  used  for  trade, 

i,  52. 

Iroquoian  culture  group,  n,  358-359. 
Iroquois  pottery,  n,  248. 
Irving,  Professor  J.  D.,  II,  352. 

"Jesuit  Relations,"  I,  4;  II,  166. 
Jesup  North  Pacific  Expedition,  i,  302. 
Jewsharp  pipe,  n,  32;  origin,  u,  52,  53. 
Jones,  Dr.  J.,  i,  422. 

Kansas  pottery,  n,  270. 

Kansas- Iowa  buffalo  culture,  n,  361. 

Kelley  Cavern,  Arkansas,  n,  106,  136. 

Kentucky,    types   of   chipped    implements,    i,    238; 

copper,  n,  174;  culture,  ii,  360. 
Kern,  D.  N.,  I,  38. 
Knives,  of  bone,  in  eastern  Canada,  n,  330;  chipped, 

passim;  see  also,  Points;  of  copper,  n,  106;  of  stone 

in  eastern  Canada,  n,  331. 
Kroeber.  Professor  A.  L.,  i,  246. 
Kuehne,  R.,  n,  196. 

L-shaped  stones,  i,  402, 

Labrador,  material  and  its  distribution,  I,  249. 


414 


INDEX 


Labrets,  I,  352. 

Lacing  of  sandals,  n,  245. 

Ladles,  of  bone,  n,  134. 

Lagoon  La  Jara,  California,  H,  108. 

Laminae,  I,  336. 

Lansing  man,  H,  352. 

Lapidary,  aboriginal,  I,  145. 

Lawson,  P.  V.,  i,  240. 

Leather,  in  Dakota,  n,  339. 

Lehigh  County,  Pennsylvania,  knives,  I,  86. 

Lenni-Lenape,  n,  357- 

Lewis,  J.  B.,  California,  I,  436;  n,  106. 

Lewis,  Professor  T.  H.,  n,  186. 

Linguistic  stocks,  n,  357. 

Little  River,  Tennessee,  i,  35;  flint,  I,  218. 

Living  forms,  influence  on  American  art,  II,  3;  in 

pottery,  n,  287. 
Logan   Museum,  Beloit,  Wisconsin,  I,  241,  308;  n, 

161. 

Long,  Major  S.  H.,  i,  50. 
"  Long-bitted  "  axes,  I,  306. 
Louisiana,  chipped  implements,  i,  238. 

Maces,  i,  422. 

Madisonville,  Ohio,  bone  handles,  i,  205;  pottery,  n, 

250. 

Mah-een-gonce,  Ojibwa,  I,  216. 
Malleating  pottery,  n,  280. 
Mallery,  G.,  n,  i. 
Mammoth,  n,  160. 
Mandans,  scrapers,  i,   198;  necklaces,  I,  216;  bone 

implements,  n,  150. 
Manitoba,  n,  341- 
Mano-stones,  n,  103. 
Marriage  tokens  (bird-stones),  n,  16. 
Martin's  Creek,  Pennsylvania,  problematical  forms, 

i,  376. 

Mason,  O.  T.,  industries,  i,  16  ff. 
Mats,  n,  235. 

Mauls,  i,  260;  on  Canadian  Plains,  n,  333- 
McCoy,  Solon,  Mountain  Home,  Idaho,  n,  102. 
McGee,  W  J,  i,  330;  Seris,  n,  348. 
McGuire,  J.  D.  (pipes),  I,  n;  n,  29;  nephrite  axe,  I, 

226  ff. 

Medicine-man,  "  Badthing,"  I,  94. 
Meredith,  Rev.  H.  C.,  I,  154;  437;  n,  308. 
Metates,  11,  95  ff .   See  also  Mortars. 
Mexico,  metates,  n,  115. 

Michigan,  II,  186,  and  passim.   See  also  under  Wis 
consin. 

Michigan,  barbed  axes,  I,  312. 
Midiwewin  Society,  n,  356. 
Migration,  i,  249. 
Mills,  W.  C.,  n,  79,  148. 
Mill-stones,  n,  106. 
Milton  College,  n,  161. 
Milwaukee  Public  Museum,  i,  241,  308. 
Minnesota,  bird-stones,  II,  5;  copper,  n,  174. 
Mississippi,  chipped  implements,  i,  238;  pottery,  n, 

270. 
Mississippi  Valley,  axes,  i,  323;  importance  of,  n, 

346. 
Missouri,  quarries,  i,  35;  chipped  implements,  i,  242; 

pottery,  n,  256;  hematite,  n,  295;  culture  area, 

hematite  belt,  n,  360. 
Missouri  Historical  Society,  i,  232. 
Mitchell,  S.  D.,  n,  161. 
Mixed  cultures,  may  be  found  together,  n,  77. 


Moccasin  Bend,  Tennessee,  I,  232. 

Monitor  pipes,  n,  33;  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  and  In 
diana,  II,  40. 

Montgomery,  Alabama,  i,  430. 

Montgomery,  Henry,  n,  242;  reducing  stone,  n,  313; 
eastern  Canada,  Utah,  and  Dakota,  n,  330  ff . 

Moore,  C.  B.,  I,  328,  422,  430;  shells,  n,  120;  pottery, 
n,  247. 

Moose-antler;  imitated  in  flint,  i,  160. 

Mortars,  n,  95  ff. 

Mortars  and  pestles,  not  always  found  together,  H, 
in. 

Mounds,  eastern  Canada,  n,  330. 

Mounting.   See  Hafting. 

"Mullers,"  i,  434. 

Musical  instruments,  n,  160. 

Mutilation,  for  purposes  of  ornament,  I,  352-353. 

"Mystery,"  Indian,  i,  215. 

"  Mystery  stones,"  i,  249. 

National  Museum,  Washington,  D.  C-,  H,  12. 

Navajo  blankets,  n,  355. 

Nebraska  pottery,  n,  270. 

Necklaces,  of  bone,  n,  142. 

Needles,  of  bone,  n,  157;  in  eastern  Canada,  H,  330; 

of  copper,  n,  221. 
Nelson,  C.  A.,  n,  125. 
Net-sinkers,  I,  432. 

New  Brunswick,  limit  of  bird-stones,  n,  5. 
New  England,  slate  spear-heads,  i,  234,  236;  celts, 

adzes,  and  gouges,  I,  273;  winged  forms,  I,  386; 

pestles,  n,  102;  harpoons,  n,  137;  copper,  n,  178; 

pottery,  n,  248;  culture  group,  n,  358. 
New  Hampshire,  quartzite,  etc.,  I,  234. 
New  Jersey,  long  slender  chipped  forms,  i,  236. 
New  Mexico,  quarries,  i,  35;  chipped  implements,  I, 

244- 

New  York  State,  harpoons,  n,  137. 
New  York  State  Museum,  i,  260. 
Nomenclature  committee,  membership,  I,  u. 
Northern  California  culture,  n,  362. 
North  Carolina,  copper,  n,  174. 
Northwest  Pacific  Coast  culture,  II,  363. 
Nose-piercing,  i,  353-354. 
Nose  rings,  i,  355. 
Notched  implements,  I,  426. 
Notched  projectile  points  of  copper,  n,  202. 
Notched  rattles,  n,  159. 
Nut-cracking  by  Indians,  n,  322. 

Objects  of  bone,  Canadian  Plains,  n,  334;  Utah,  n, 
337;  Dakota,  n,  340;  of  shell,  in  eastern  Canada, 
II,  33i;  Canadian  Plains,  n,  335;  Dakota,  II,  340; 
of  wood,  in  Utah,  n,  336. 

Observation  necessary  to  an  archaeologist,  n,  351. 

Obsidian  blades,  their  value,  I,  246. 

Ohio,  chipped  implements,  I,  238;  gorgets,  i,  373; 
copper,  ii,  174;  culture,  II,  360. 

Ohio  River  between  Aurora  and  Laurenceburg,  In 
diana,  n,  345. 

Ohio  State  Archaeological  and  Historical  Society, 
Columbus,  Ohio,  i,  334. 

Ohio  Valley,  chisel  celts,  i,  324. 

Ojibwa,  i,  432;  ii,  40,  67,  356. 

Ollas,  for  cooking,  n,  264. 

Ornaments,  i,  329  ff.;  of  bone,  n,  134;  of  copper,  II, 
230  ff.;  of  silver,  ii,  230. 

Osages,  n,  354- 


INDEX 


Oshkosh  Library  Collection,  n,  196. 
Ozark  culture  area,  n,  361. 
Ozark  region,  axes,  i,  234. 

Pacific  Coast,  knives,  I,  96;  chipped  implements,  i, 

244. 

Paddles,  n,  280. 

Paducah,  Kentucky,  pebbles,  i,  70,  126. 
Painting,  or  tattoo-marks,  n,  126. 
Paint- pestles,  I,  434. 
Paint-stones,  as  mortars,  n,  102. 
Paint-stone  hematite,  a,  301. 
Palaeolithic    forms    with    resemblances    in    eastern 

Canada,  n,  331. 
Palaeolithic  implements,  i,  81. 
Palenque,  Mexico,  n,  61. 
Parker,  W.  Thornton,  M.  D..  i,  122. 
Patination,  i,  178;  H,  352. 
Peabody,  C..  i,  n.  362,  431. 
Peabody,  R.  S.,  II,  25. 
Peabody   Museum,    Cambridge,    Massachusetts,    i, 

232,  334.  362. 

Peabody  Museum,  Salem,  Massachusetts,  n,  104. 
Peale,  C.  W.,  of  the  Philadelphia  Museum,  i,  50. 
Pearls,  i,  360. 

Pebbles,  drilled  and  used  as  ornaments,  I,  329. 
Pendants,  i,  329  ff.;  of  bone,  n,  134;  of  copper,  n,  227. 
Pennsylvania,  large  range  of  chipped  implements,  i, 

238. 

Pepper,  G.  H.,  shell  effigies,  n,  133. 
Perforated  clubs,  ir,  311. 
Perforations,  in  problematical  forms,  i,  347;  in  shell 

gorgets,  n,  125. 
Perforators   (see  also  Awls,   Drills),   in   general,    i, 

210  ff.;  classification,  i,  210;  use  as  pins,  i,  210;  of 

copper,  n,  219. 

Perishable  materials,  i,  32;  n,  344- 
Perkins,  E.  C.,  II,  210. 
Perkins,  Professor  G.  H.,  i,  236,  277. 
Pestles,  ii,  95  ff. 

Petaluma,  California,  plummets,  i,  436. 
Phallic  pestles,  11,  116. 
Philadelphia  Museum,  ii,  235. 
Phillips  Academy   collection,  Andover,    Massachu-   ' 

setts,  i,  362,  and  passim. 
Phoenix,  Arizona,  I,  138. 
Pick-shaped  forms,  I,  341,  402. 
Pictographs  on  gorget,  i,  380;  in  general,  n,  i. 
Pikes,  of  copper,  ii,  216. 
Piney  Branch  (D.  C.),  I,  35- 
Pipes,  n,  29  ff.;    eastern  Canada,  ii,  331;  Canadian 

Plains,  n,  334;  Utah,  n,  338;  Dakota,  n,  341. 
Pitted  stones,  II,  314  ff. 
Plastic  vs.  incised  designs,  n,  288. 
Plummet-shaped  forms,  I,  431  ff. 
Pointed  bowls  for  insertion  in  the  ground,  n,  114. 
Point  of  view  of  the  peoples  of  the  stone  age,  n,  363. 
Population  in  ancient  times,  n,  344. 
Pottery,  in  general,  n,  247;  invention,  ii,  258;  classi 
fied,  ii,  278;  in  eastern  Canada,  n,  332;  Plains  of 

Canada,  II,  335;  Utah,  338 :  Dakota,  II,  342. 
Powell,  Major  J.  W.,  n,  357. 
Precious  minerals,  n,  364. 
Problematical  forms,  in  general,  i,  329  ff.;  peculiar 

to  America,  I,  414. 
Processes  of  stone-shaping,  I,  280. 
Progression  of  types,  i,  260. 
Projectile  points,  copper,  II,  180,  198. 


Provincial  Museum.  Toronto.  Ontario,  n,  ii. 
Pueblo  culture,  n,  362. 
Punches,  of  copper,  ii,  216. 
Putnam,  Professor  F.  W.,  n,  235. 
Pyrula  shells,  n,  122. 

Quadrupeds  in  or  on  pottery,  n,  287. 

Quarries,  I,  34  ff.;  soapstone,  n,  104. 

Quarrying  materials,  i,  31  ff. 

Question  of  antiquity  of  man  in  America,  n,  350  ff. 

Rat-tail  files,  discussion,  n,  133. 
Rattles,  i,  357;  of  clay,  n,  261. 
Rau,  Dr.  Charles,  i,  421. 
Reeder,  J.  T.,  n,  124. 
Reamers,  i,  212. 
Re-chipped  specimens,  i,  124. 
Rejects,  i,  43,  Fig.  36. 

Re-made  specimens,  axes  as  hammers  I,  231 ;  problem 
atical  forms,  i,  347- 
Renaissance  art,  ii,  355- 
Repouss6  work,  copper,  n,  234. 
Rhode  Island,  pestle,  n,  114. 
Ribbons  of  (the  moose),  n,  159. 
Ribs  of  animals,  as  knives,  etc.,  n,  134. 
Ridged  gorgets,  i,  341;  developing  into  bars,  I,  403. 
Rings,  i,  440;  of  clay,  n,  264. 
Rivet-holes  in  sockets,  n,  210. 
Rocky  Mountain  culture,  n,  361-362. 
Rocky  Mountain  region,  chipped  implements,  I,  242. 
Rolled  socketed  points,  of  copper,  n,  212 
Roller  pestles,  u,  114. 
Rubbing  pottery,  n,  280. 

Rudeness  of  object  no  evidence  of  antiquity,  i,  82. 
Rust.  H.  N.,  i,  245. 

"Saddle-stones,"  n,  5. 

St.  Francis  Basin,  Arkansas,  pottery,  ii.  256. 

St.  Lawrence  Basin,  celts,  i,  267;  harpoons,  n,  137. 

Salado  Valley,  Arizona,  n,  131,  132. 

Salts  Cave,  Kentucky,  n,  238. 

Saltpeter,  as  preservative,  n,  238. 

Sandals,  n,  235. 

Santo  Domingo,  celts,  i,  328. 

Saskatchewan,  ii,  341. 

Savage,  Father  James,  i,  312. 

Savage  vs.  barbaric  cultures,  ii,  348. 

Savannah  River,  pottery,  n,  280. 

Scarifying  of  pottery,  ii,  287. 

Secondary  uses  of  forms,  i,  304  ff- 

Scandinavian  daggers,  I,  62. 

Sceptres,  i,  166. 

Schumacher,  J.  P.,  i,  242. 

Schuette,  G.,  n,  196. 

Scrapers,  compared  with  Eskimo,  I,  67;  in  general,  i. 
198  ff.;  classified,  i,  198;  mounting,  I,  205;  of  bone, 
ii,  134;  in  eastern  Canada,  II,  330,  331. 

Scraping  pottery,  n,  280. 

Screw-pressure,  i,  71. 

Seever,  W.  J.,  i,  164. 

Sellars,  G..  i,  40.  48. 

Seminoles,  n,  354. 

Seris,  I,  330;  ii,  348. 

Serpent,  realistically  treated,  n,  288. 

Sharpening-stones,  Dakota,  ii,  341. 

Shawano  sites,  II,  345. 

Shell,  ii,  117  ff.;  in  Dakota,  n,  340. 

Shell  gorgets,  n,  122  ff. 


416 


INDEX 


Shoulder  blades  of  animals,  as  digging- tools,  11,  134. 

Shuttles,  i,  410. 

Sinew,  for  hafting,  i,  286. 

Sinew-smoother,  i,  369. 

"  Sinew-stone,"  II,  314. 

Sioux,  necklaces,  I,  216;  pipes,  n,  40. 

Sites,  prehistoric,  historic,  modern,  n,  344,  345- 

Skull,  incrusted  with  shells,  n,  352. 

Slate  spears,  in  eastern  Canada,  u,  331. 

Smith,  Captain  John,  I,  49. 

Smith,  Harlan  I.,  i,  302. 

Smithsonian      Institution,      Washington,      D.     C., 

chipped  implements,  I,  232,  334;  copper,  n,  161; 

pottery,  n,  280;  hematites,  n,  302. 
Snake-form  in  necklaces,  n,  155. 
Snyder,  Dr.  J.  F.,  Virginia,  Illinois,  I,  218,  427. 
Sockets,  copper,  n,  190. 
Socketed  points,  n,  180. 
Soapstone,  II,  104. 
South  America,  copper,  II,  165. 
South  Carolina,  chippqcl  implements,  I,  239. 
Southern  California  culture,  II,  362. 
Southern  culture  areas,  n,  361. 
Southwest,  numerous  effigies,  n,  23. 
Spades,  manufacture,  i,  64. 
Spatulas,  copper,  n,  192. 
Specialization  in  work,  I,  145  ff. 
Spikes,  of  copper,  n,  220. 
Spindle-whorls,  n,  23. 
Split  stick  for  hafting,  I,  305. 
Spool-shaped  forms,  I,  403. 
Spoons,  of  bone,  n,  141. 
Springfield,  Illinois,  i,  180. 
Spuds,  of  copper,  n,  186. 
Spud-shaped  forms,  i,  418  ff.;  habitat,  I,  421. 
Squash,  u,  238. 
Squier  and  Davis,  n,  133. 
Stamping  pottery,  n,  280. 
Stanley,  H.  M.,  n,  367. 
Starr,  Professor  Frederick,  n,  159. 
Steatite,  n,  104. 
Steinbrueck,  E.    R.,  Mandan   collection,  I,   198;  n, 

150. 

Stems,  classified,  i,  99. 
Stockton,  California,  i,  154. 
Stoddard,  II.  L.,  I,  452. 
"  Stone  ceremonial  swords,"  n,  308. 
Stone  graves,  Tennessee,  n,  261;  number,  n,  346. 
"  Stone  swords,"  I,  164. 
Sun-dance,  Mandan  and  Kiowa,  i,  6,  7. 
Sun-dried  clay,  liable  to  disappear,  n,  269. 
"  Sun-fish  spears,"  Greene  County,  Ohio,  i,  233. 
Superior-Michigan  region,  chipped  implements,    i, 

239. 

Susquehanna  River,  I,  35;  axes,  I,  323. 
"Swords"  of  shell,  n,  121. 
Symbolic  decoration,  n,  287. 
Symposium  on  copper,  n,  233. 

Talets.  i,  347  ff.;  of  stone  in  Dakota,  n,  341. 
Tattoo-marks,  or  painting,  11,  126. 
Technology  of  flint  implements,  I,  234. 
Tecumseh,  n,  345. 
Teeth  as  ornaments,  II,  134. 
"  Telescopes,"  I,  455. 
Tempering,  of  pottery,  n,  256. 

Tennessee,    types   of   chipped    implements,    i,  238; 
bicaves,  i,  446;  copper,  ir,  174. 


!    Tennessee  Historical  Society,  I,  232. 

|    Tennessee  Valley,  shell  gorgets,  n,  123;  pottery,  II, 

ii,  256. 

j    Texas,  i,  40;  chipped  implements,  I,  244. 
|    Texas  culture  area,  n,  361. 
j    Textile  fabrics,  in  general,  n,  235  ff. 

Textiles  in  Utah,  n,  337. 
J    Thomas,  Dr.  Cyrus,  n,  368. 
[    Thruston,  General  G.  P.,  i,  422. 

Thunder-bird,  as  represented  by  winged  forms,  I, 
380. 

Tobacco  and  tobacco-smoking,  n,  29. 

Tomahawks,  i,  270. 

Tooker,  Paul  S.,  Westfield,  New  Jersey,  I,  380. 

Toothed  points,  of  copper,  n,  202. 

Torches,  of  reed,  II,  238. 

Totems,  n,  17. 

Toys,  of  pottery,  ii,  261. 

Trade,  aboriginal,  i,  221;  in  copper,  n,  23,  231. 

Transportation  of  material,  I,  40  ff;  I,  218-220. 

Trenton,  New  Jersey,  n,  350. 

Triangular  pieces  of  horn,  n,  153,  154. 

Tubular  forms,  I,  453  ff. 

Turtlebacks,  n,  40;  191,  348. 

Typha  (cat-tail),  fibres  for  braiding,  II,  240. 

Unbaked  clay,  Dakota,  n,  342. 

Unfinished   fish-hooks,   process  of  manufacture,  II, 

148. 

Unfinished  winged  forms,  I,  379. 
Unio  shells,  ii,  122. 
University  of  Vermont,  n,  189. 
Utah,  in  general  (Montgomery),  n,  336  ff.;  culture 

area,  n,  363. 

Valuation  of  chipped  implements,  I,  245. 
Variety  is  ceramics,  n,  289. 
Village-site  of  antiquity,  n,  269. 
Volk,  E.,  n,  350. 

Wabash  River,  limit  of  effigy  pottery,  n,  250. 

Wagon-pressure,  i,  71. 

War  points,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Missis 
sippi,  Texas,  Georgia,  Virginia,  Massachusetts, 
Oregon,  Illinois,  i,  86,  88. 

Wearing  of  perforations,  i,  372. 

Weathering,  n,  353. 

Wedges,  copper,  ii,  184. 

Weirs,  n,  141. 

West,  G.  A.,  pipes,  n,  29. 

West  Virginia,  plummets,  i,  436;  copper,  n,  174- 

Whistles,  ii,  142. 

Wild  hemp,  n,  242. 

Willamette  Valley,  Oregon,  small  points,  .,  233. 

Williams,  Professor  E.  H.,  Jr.,  I,  205,  413;  n,  352. 

Willoughby,  C.  C.,  i,  251. 

Wilson,  Rev.  G.  L.,  n,  iS3- 

Wilson,  Dr.  T.,  i,  10,  34,  251. 

Winged  forms  of  greater  age  than  the  mounds.  I,  41 1. 

Winged  problematical  forms,  I,  376  ff. 

Winnebago  Indians,  n,  40;  n,  159,  167. 

Wintuns,  I,  74. 

Wisconsin,  knives,  I,  92;  spades,  I,  184;  grooved 
hammers,  I,  231 ;  celts,  i,  272;  grooved  axes.  I,  306; 
fluted  axes,  I,  316;  gorgets,  i,  374;  winged  forms, 
i,  386;  spuds,  i,  427;  pestles,  n,  115;  bone,  n,  156; 
copper,  ii,  161  ff.;  pottery,  n,  294;  hematite,  II, 
304. 


INDEX 


Wisconsin  Archaeological  Society,  n,  164. 
Wisconsin  Natural  History-Society,  II,  161. 
Wisconsin  State    Historical    Museum,   i,   241-242. 

308;  ii,  161. 
Woman's  knife,  n,  311. 

Women,  compared  with  men  in  population,  u,  13?- 
Wooden  bowls,  n,  102. 

Workmanship,  depending  on  material,  i,  233. 
Wrappings  of  cloth,  n,  204. 
Wright,  Professor  G.  Frederick,  T,  34. 
Wright,  Professor  John  H.,  i,  1 1. 


Wyman,  Dr.  Jeffries,  n,  352. 
Wyoming,  quarries,  i,  35. 

Vale,  British  Columbia,  I,  304. 
Yellowstone  Park,  i.  35. 
Young,  Colonel  B.  H.,  n,  124;  shell  gorgets 
Salts  Cave,  n,  238. 


417 


n,  130; 


Zigzag  ornamentation,  or  pattern,  n,  214. 
Zimmerman,  E.  D.,     Kutztown.    Pennsylvania,    H, 
308. 


(EDtje  HtoerstDe 


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